UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


INTERNATIONAL  EDUCATION  SERIES 


THE 

SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 
OF  GERMANY 


BY 


FEEDEKICK  E.  BOLTOX,  M.  S.,  Ph.  D. 

PROFESSOR  OP  PSYCHOLOGY  AND   PEDAGOGY, 
STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  MILWAL'KEE,  WIS. 


10  0^1 


NEW    YORK 
D.     A  PPL  ETON    AND     COMPANY 

1900 


34  7  7 


Copyright,  1900, 
By  D.  APPLETON  AND  COBIPANY. 


Electrotyped  and  Printed 
at  the  appl.eton  press,  u.  s.  a. 


STATE  nORKAL  sen 

EDITOE^S  PEEFACE. 


Until  recently  there  has  been  no  adequate  ac- 
connt  in  the  English  language  of  the  secondary 
schools  in  Germany.  There  have  been,  it  is  true, 
many  articles  in  magazines  which  quoted  single  pro- 
grammes and  courses  of  study,  but  there  has  been 
no  general  survey  of  the  subject,  and,  above  all,  no 
study  of  the  origin  and  progressive  growth  of  the 
system. 

Only  through  a  study  of  its  origin  and  its  de- 
velopment does  one  become  able  to  understand  the 
present  condition  of  a  system  of  education,  and  to 
predict  with  some  degree  of  accuracy  its  future 
trend. 

It  is  unscientific,  not  to  say  idle  and  unprofitable, 
to  summon  before  us  an  existing  system  and  attempt 
to  pass  judgment  on  it  without  first  investigating  its 
genesis  and  learning  the  function  that  it  fills. 

Even  a  comparison  of  one  system  with  another 
contemporary  system  does  not  go  very  far  to  enlight- 
en us  on  the  question  of  improving  our  own  system; 
for  we  must  first  recognise  the  social  necessity  that 
has  called  an  institution  into  being  before  we  can 


Vi      SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

discern  its  present  sliortcomings,  and  before  we  can 
judge  of  the  merits  of  what  is  offered  as  a  substitute 
for  it. 

The  new  method  of  science  which  has  come  into 
vogue  during  the  past  forty  years  is  slowly  taking 
possession  of  all  fields  of  inquiry.  It  has  to  some 
extent  penetrated  that  of  education.  It  is  no  longer 
possible  for  a  first-class  scientific  man  to  write  a  book 
that  arraigns  the  entire  educational  system  of  the 
age  without  any  attempt  to  study  its  beginnings  and 
growth,  and  without  bestowing  so  much  as  a  thought 
on  the  function  which  it  has  filled  in  forming  the 
civilization  of  the  present.  Successful  studies  on 
organic  growth  deal  sympathetically  Avith  the  embry- 
ology of  a  living  being,  and  lavish  time  and  patience 
on  the  observation  of  the  crude  forms  that  ushered 
in  the  era  of  organic  life  on  the  planet.  So,  too, 
must  the  new  literature  of  pedagogy  take  on  the 
scientific  spirit,  and,  emulating  the  methods  of  the 
biologist,  give  its  attention  to  the  first  steps  of  edu- 
cation and  the  subsequent  adaptation  of  a  course  of 
study  to  the  social  need. 

Civilization  is  the  key  word  in  the  study  of  the 
history  of  pedagogy.  What  has  been  the  ideal  of 
civilization,  and  what  have  been  the  means  to  initiate 
the  new  human  being,  the  child,  into  a  participation 
in  its  benefits?  How  has  the  individual  in  youth 
been  made  to  adopt  such  habits  of  life  as  to  fit  him 
to  help  his  fellow-men  and  make  him  at  the  same 
time  receptive  of  help  from  them  ? 

In  the  history  of  school  education  we  note  con- 
tinually a  struggle  between  one-sided  reformers  and 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  Vll 

devotees  of  a  blind  conservatism.  The  former  desire 
to  substitute  new  branches  of  learning  or  new  meth- 
ods of  instruction  for  those  in  vogue,  without  care- 
fully weighing  their  educational  value.  They  adduce 
superficial  grounds  for  adoption  of  the  ncAV,  and 
equally  superficial  objections  against  the  old.  The 
blind  conservatives  feel  the  importance  of  the  old, 
and  are  not  convinced  of  the  necessity  of  change. 
The  two  parties  are  to  be  brought  into  harmony  only 
by  a  scientific  study  which  shall  enumerate  one  by 
one  the  educational  values  of  the  conflicting  methods 
and  courses  of  study.  These  educational  values  are 
to  be  found  in  two  lines :  A  study  may  be  valuable 
as  giving  man  power  over  Nature  in  time  and  space, 
as  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry,  botany,  geology, 
etc.,  or  it  may  be  valuable  as  giving  an  insight  into 
human  nature,  thus  making  closer  the  union  of  man 
and  man,  so  that  the  social  whole  may  help  each 
member  of  it  to  better  advantage  to  help  himself. 
Thus  the  study  of  language,  history,  philosophy,  and, 
above  all,  of  literature,  is  a  direct  means  of  promot- 
ing civilization. 

The  solidarity  of  the  present  with  the  past  is 
above  all  essential,  and  must  be  provided  for  at  all 
hazards;  otherwise  we  should  always  have  revolu- 
tion instead  of  reform,  and  never  any  real  progress. 
Here  is  the  secret  of  the  educational  value  of  the 
classics.  The  Chinese  study  Confucius  and  Mencius, 
and  thereby  learn  to  understand  much  better  their 
close-fitting  etiquette  as  their  spiritual  garment  of 
use  and  wont.  The  young  Brahman  sees  in  the 
Veda  which  he  learns  to  read  the  active  causes  that 


Vlll    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

produced  and  maintain  his  caste  system.  So  tlie 
Koran  initiates  the  Mohammedan  child,  just  as  the 
study  of  the  second  book  of  Homer's  Iliad  did  the 
Greek  child,  into  the  nature  of  the  social  whole  in 
which  he  finds  himself. 

Latin  and  Greek  as  studies  in  the  seconrlary 
schools  initiate  the  youth  of  modern  European  civili- 
zation wherever  it  is  found,  whether  in  the  Old  World 
or  in  the  New,  into  the  spirit  of  the  Greeks  and 
Eomans  who  furnished  two  essential  threads  to  that 
civilization,  namely,  the  laws,  forms  of  judicial  pro- 
cedure, and  the  forms  of  ownership  and  transfer  of 
property — all  these  being  forms  of  the  social  will, 
and  chiefly  Latin  in  their  origin.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Greeks  furnished  the  forms  of  art,  literature, 
science,  and  philosophy,  the  intellectual  side  of  our 
civilization.  It  does  not  require  much  reflection  to 
see  the  educational  value  of  some  years'  study  of 
Greek  and  Latin  to  the  European  youth  to  build  up 
in  his  mind  an  apperceptive  mass  of  concepts  that 
enable  him  to  recognise  the  origin  and  significance 
of  the  laws  and  forms  of  civil  combination  which 
make  possible  the  social  whole  in  which  he  lives ;  or, 
on  the  other  hand,  to  recognise  what  is  derivative  in 
his  art  and  literature  and  science. 

These  useful  things  could  not  be  taught  scien- 
tifically and  philosophically  to  youth  of  tender  age  ; 
but  they  are  taught  more  effectually  by  an  educative 
process  lasting  over  several  years'  study  of  the  classic 
languages — a  process  that  gradually  imbues  the 
mind  with  the  classic  spirit.  The  effect  is  to  build 
up  a  new  consciousness  supplementary  to  the  natural 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  ix 

one  received  by  the  child  in  infancy  and  childhood, 
in  his  home  and  social  life.  He  adds  to  himself  a 
new  life  that  is  a  shadowy  reproduction  of  the  life 
of  the  peoples  that  created  the  elements  of  his 
civilization  for  him.  The  consequence  is  that  he 
goes  forth  from  high  school  and  college  with  a 
double  childhood  experience,  the  one  modern,  the 
other  ancient,  the  latter  a  sort  of  key  or  clew  to  the 
other ;  the  one  an  organic  life  of  to-day,  the  other 
an  embryonic  life  that  explains  the  former.  The 
study  of  the  classics  of  a  civilization  brings  about  a 
second  birth,  namely,  into  the  world  of  producing 
causes  of  one's  civilization.  All  who  get  this  higher 
education  have  had  this  new  birth,  although  they  are 
rarely  conscious  of  the  rationale  of  the  process. 

Language  is  a  revelation  of  human  nature  differ- 
ent from  that  of  history.  The  latter  reveals  indi- 
vidual collisions  against  the  social  whole  and  the 
collisions  of  one  whole  (a  nation)  against  others 
(nations).  But  language  shows  directly  the  degree 
in  which  the  people  have  realized  individual  freedom. 
The  development  of  the  independent  functions  of  the 
parts  of  speech  shows  the  advancement  of  the  Indo- 
European  and  Semitic  stages  of  consciousness  as  com- 
pared with  Chinese  and  Turanic  consciousness,  which 
uses  a  language  wherein  the  parts  of  speech  have  not 
yet  differentiated  and  become  independent.  To  ac- 
quire a  familiarity  with  a  language  is  in  some  measure 
to  learn  to  think  in  it,  and  to  look  at  the  world  after 
the  manner  of  the  people  who  made  the  language. 

Even  the  English  method  of  spelling,  which  pre- 
serves the  rights  of  each  word  to  its  own  alj)habetical 


X        SECONDAllY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  CiERMANY. 

dress  without  nuicli  rcstniiiit  from  uiiiilogy  or  from 
phonic  laws,  is  a  very  close  symbol  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Xorman  constitution  of  England,  wherein 
ancient  compromises  have  become  modern  rights  and 
privileges.  For  local  self-government  arose  from  com- 
promises between  social  power  in  the  government  and 
individual  stubbornness  of  resistance. 

It  is  evident  that  the  study  of  Latin  by  the  south- 
ern nations  of  Europe  is  not  of  the  same  educational 
value  as  that  by  the  northern  nations.  The  latter 
have  a  Teutonic  basis  to  their  language,  while  the 
former  have  a  Eoman  basis.  All  southern  Europeans 
should  study  English  or  German,  and  thereby  add 
to  their  natural  consciousness  that  of  the  northern 
nations,  and  through  this  enable  them  to  understand 
readily  the  motives  of  action  and  the  aspirations  of 
their  powerful  neighbours. 

Is  it  not  a  blind,  unconscious  conviction  in  the 
Teutonic  mind  that  causes  his  conservatism  in  the 
contest  over  the  real-schools  and  the  gymnasia — mat- 
ters faithfully  recorded  by  Professor  Bolton  in  this 
book — the  struggle  against  the  substitution  of  the 
so-called  "  moderns  "  (science,  history,  and  modern 
literature)  for  the  traditional  classic  course  ?  A  con- 
servative may  be  excused  for  shuddering  at  a  change 
that  he  thinks  would  deprive  the  coming  generation 
of  the  power  to  see  the  past  in  the  present — a  power 
that  he  feels  in  himself  to  apperceive  the  Greek  and 
Eoman  contingents  in  modern  civilization.  It  ap. 
pears  to  him  like  a  proposition  to  dispense  with  the 
second  birth,  a  birth  into  a  consciousness  of  his  heri- 
tage of  the  past. 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE.  xi 

Very  many  problems  in  German  secondary  in- 
struction are  common  to  American,  but  their  solu- 
tions have  not  been  the  same.  It  has  been  our  gen- 
eral practice  to  take  up  algebra  before  geometry,  but 
after  quadratic  equations  to  begin  and  complete  plane 
geometry.  The  Germans  begin  with  geometry  and 
follow  with  algebra.  On  account  of  the  close  rehi- 
tion  of  algebra  to  arithmetic  the  American  will  justify 
himself,  it  is  likely,  in  continuing  his  old  practice,  al- 
though some  schools  here  are  trying  the  German  plan. 

Too  much  has  been  attempted  in  arithmetic  and 
its  applications  before  beginning  algebra.  There  has 
been  a  constant  tendency  to  produce  arrested  devel- 
opment on  the  mechanical  stage  of  arithmetical  cal- 
culation, and  thus  retard  the  pupil's  progress  into 
higher  mathematics.  A  few  weeks'  study  of  algebra 
gives  the  pupil  a  surprising  advantage  over  his  fellow 
who  has  studied  arithmetic  only.  He  can  now  make 
rules  for  himself,  and  does  not  need  to  remember 
those  of  his  book. 

What  is  said  of  the  German  practice  of  studying 
science  without  laboratories  should  lead  to  a  careful 
investigation  of  the  question  whether  there  is  not  a 
preliminary  stage  of  science — say  for  children  and 
youth  under  sixteen  years  of  age — in  which  the 
laboratory  method  is  not  so  serviceable  as  the  for- 
mer method  of  teaching.  There  can,  of  course,  be 
no  doubt  of  the  superiority  of  the  laboratory  method 
in  the  college  and  the  university. 

The  question,  "  What  is  complete  living  ? "  is  a 
very  pertinent  one  in  the  face  of  the  dictum  which 
asserts  that  the  true  object  of  education  is  to  jjre- 


xii     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

pare  people  for  complete  living.  Such  complete 
living  involves  tlie  two  factors  named  above  :  (1) 
such  a  knowledge  of  Xature  as  enables  one  to  con- 
quer it  for  human  ends  and  purposes ;  (2)  the 
knowledge  of  human  nature  that  enables  each  to 
combine  helpfully  with  the  social  whole.  The  edu- 
cated individual  should  be  able  to  avail  himself  of 
all  human  experience. 

I  must  not  close  this  preface  without  speaking  of 
the  abuse  of  classic  study.  The  study  of  Latin  for 
an  average  of  seven  hours  a  week  for  nine  years 
(aside  from  the  study  in  the  preparation  of  the  les- 
son) would  seem  to  be  more  than  is  necessary  to 
create  in  the  mind  the  desirable  apperception  basis 
spoken  of  above.  All  that  is  in  addition  to  the  proper 
amount,  it  must  be  remembered,  goes  to  arrest  the  de- 
velopment of  the  mind  on  a  lower  stage  of  develop- 
ment. One  often  finds  in  English  and  French  uni- 
versities, and  occasionally  here  in  America,  scholars 
who  have  taken  honours  for  their  classical  preparation 
(especially  in  Latin  or  Greek  prosody)  who  seem  to 
have  lost  their  interest  in  the  modern  world.  They 
have  alienated  themselves  from  the  present  and  can 
not  now  return  to  it  and  grapple  with  its  problems. 
This  is  the  reductio  ad  ahsurdum  of  scholarship ;  for 
the  object  of  the  school  is  to  fit  for  complete  living 
in  the  sense  of  conquering  Xature  and  combining 
with  one's  fellow-men.  The  study  of  the  past  is  a 
means  for  understanding  the  present,  and  not  for 
adopting  the  past  as  a  substitute  for  the  present. 

W.  T.  Hakkis. 

Wasiiingtox,  December  1,  1S99. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE. 


At  no  time  in  the  history  of  our  country  has  the 
science  of  education  been  so  zealously  studied  as 
during  the  last  few  years.  •  The  subject  has  been 
considered  from  innumerable  points  of  view.  But 
we  have  many  features  to  work  out  more  systemat- 
ically than  has  yet  been  done.  Much  is  still  to  be 
learned  from  a  comparative,  critical  study  of  educa- 
tional systems  in  foreign  countries.  It  has  been 
said  that  "  Germany  is  the  schoolmistress  of  the 
world  " ;  and  all  will  welcome  any  contribution  to 
the  existing  knowledge  concerning  the  educational 
status  of  a  country  so  influential  in  shaping  the 
world's  thought. 

It  was  with  pleasure  that  I  availed  myself  of  the 
opportunity  while  in  Germany  to  personally  visit 
and  study  the  different  forms  of  schools  comprised 
in  the  educational  system.  I  witnessed  recitations 
in  all  branches  of  instruction  in  all  grades  from  the 
kindergarten  to  the  university,  and  hence  gained  a 


xiv    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

fairly  adequate  personal  acquaintance  with  organi- 
zation and  methods  of  instruction.  In  addition  to 
this  I  sought  every  opportunity  for  conference  with 
schoolmen,  teachers  and  directors,  to  better  acquaint 
myself  with  the  motif  inspiring  the  various  features 
of  the  system.  An  endeavour  was  also  made  to  study 
the  family  life,  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  the  relations 
between  patrons  and  the  school  system.  I  have 
attempted  in  the  following  pages  to  describe  one 
section  of  the  system,  viz.,  the  secondary  schools. 
An  attempt  has  been  made  to  explain  the  essential 
features  of  the  organization,  government,  and  modus 
operandi  of  the  schools. 

An  important  feature  of  the  book,  and  one  Avhicli 
ought  to  prove  helpful  by  comparison  with  the 
status  in  our  own  country,  is  the  consideration  of 
the  qualifications,  training,  and  examination  of 
teachers.  Courses  of  study  have  received  consider- 
able attention.  Although  these  are  but  a  means  to 
an  end,  yet  they  are  in  no  small  degree  determina- 
tive of  the  end.  We  have  by  no  means  solved  the 
question  concerning  the  subject-matter  and  division 
of  our  school  curricula,  and  any  precedents  estab- 
lished by  a  country  like  Germany  should  receive 
careful  investigation. 

Many  valuable  contributions  have  been  made 
from  time  to  time  upon  various  phases  of  the  Ger- 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE.  XV 

mail  schools,  especially  by  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education,  but  no  one  has  heretofore  brought 
together  any  comprehensive  treatment  of  the  sec- 
ondary school  system.*  From  the  many  expressions 
of  students  and  educators  with  whom  this  work  has 
been  discussed  while  in  preparation,  I  am  led  to 
believe  that  it  will  fill  a  real  want.  My  greatest  de- 
sire is  that,  though  necessarily  imperfect,  it  may 
contribute  something  to  the  betterment  of  the  con- 
ditions of  education  in  our  own  domain. 

I  am  under  great  obligation  to  my  friend  Dr. 
Alexander  Benncwitz,  of  the  Girls'  High  School  at 
Leipzig,  for  many  valuable  suggestions,  for  the  inter- 
pretation of  data  obscure  in  meaning  to  a  foreigner, 
and  for  many  important  facts  which  would  have 
been  inaccessible  but  for  his  kindly  assistance. 
To  the  many  school  officials,  the  librarians  at  the 
Comenius  Stiftung  and  the  Leipsic  University 
Library,  and  others  too  numerous  to  mention  indi- 
vidually, I  desire  in  this  public  way  to  express  my 
gratitude  for  the  many  courtesies  extended  me. 

The  hearty  co-operation  of  my  wife  throughout 
the  entire  prosecution  of  the  work  has  not  only 
rendered  the  book  possible,  but  has  enabled  me  to 
place   the   results   before   the   public   much  sooner 

*  Dr.  Russell's  German  Higher  Schools  appeared  since  this 
was  written. 
9 


XVI     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

than  I  otherwise  could  have  done.  My  brotlier, 
Dr.  Herbert  E.  Bolton,  has  read  the  entire  work 
in  manuscript,  and  his  numerous  suggestions  on 
arrangement  have  made  it  of  increased  value.  To 
Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall  and  Dr.  William  H.  Burnham 
I  am  indebted  for  kindly  sympathy  and  substantial 
aid  while  the  work  was  maturing.  For  the  treatise 
as  a  whole  I  alone  am  responsible. 

It  is  with  jileasure  I  mention  that  every  con- 
tributor to  this  series,  as  well  as  the  educational 
public,  owe  a  lasting  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  gen- 
eral editor,  Hon.  William  T.  Harris,  LL.  D.,  for  his 
careful  personal  attention  to  every  volume  while  it 
is  passing  through  the  press. 

F.  E.  B. 

State  Normal  School,  IMilwaukee,  Wis,, 
September,  1S99. 


CONTENTS, 


CHAPTER   I. 

PAGE 

General   organization   and   management   of   German 

secondary  schools       1 

1.  Introductory — Differentiation  of  German  schools  .        1 

2.  Classification  and  general  definition  of  secondary 

schools    ....        o        ....  5 

3.  Distribution  of  schools  and  pupils  ....  8 

4.  Ages  of  pupils  in  secondary  schools         .         .        .  13- 

5.  Preparatory  schools  (Vorschulen)    ....  17 

6.  Organization — Relation  to  state  and  city        .         .  19 

7.  Stimuli  to  secondary  education        ....  29 

I.  State  recognition  for  completion  of  full  school 

course 33 

II.  State   recognition   for  completion   of   partial 

courses 35 

8.  Distribution  of  pupils  by  grades  and  ages  (with 

tables) 37 

9.  Some  general  characteristics  of  the  inner  organiza- 

tion of  the  secondary  schools         ....       40 

CHAPTER   II. 
Teachers 55 

1.  Examination  and  certification  ....       55 

2.  Observations  upon  the  qualifications  for  certifica- 

tion          68 


xviil  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

PAGE 

3.  Training  of  teachers 76 

A.  Introductory 76 

B.  Estublislunent  of  iicdagogical  seminaries        ,  78 

C.  Tiie  workings  of  tiie  pedagogical  seminaries  .  81 

I.  Older  seminaries  in  connection  with  ele- 
mentary sciiools 82 

II.  Gymnasial  seminaries.     (Prussian  regula- 
tions governing  the  training  of  second- 
ary-school teachers)         ....  85 
III.  University  seminaries        ....  91 
a.  The  seminary  at  Jena       ...  92 
i.  The  seminary  at  Leipsic  ...  95 

c.  The  seminary  at  Strasburg      .         .  101 

d.  The  seminary  at  Heidelberg    .         .  102 

e.  General  note  to  section  "  C  "    .        .  102 

4.  Teachers'  official  titles 112 

5.  Teachers'  tenure  of  office 118 

6.  Teachers'  salaries  (with  tables)        .        .        .        .119 

CHAPTER  III. 

Movements  toward  reform  in  courses  of  study  .        .  129 

1.  Historical  basis  of  curricula 129 

2.  The  final  struggle 142 

3.  Changes  wrought 156 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Present  courses  of  study 

1.  Introductory — School  programmes 

(with  tables)  .... 

2.  Outline  of  courses  of  study 

A.  Religious  instruction 

B.  Classics :  (a)  Latin,  {b)  Greek 

C.  Modern  languages  :  (a)  French, 

D.  Mathematics     . 

E.  History  and  geography    . 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAGE 

F.  Natural  sciences 250 

G.  The  mother  tongue 2G0 

H.  Final  examinations 269 

CHAPTER  V. 

Secondary  and  higher  education  of  women         .        .  277 

1.  Classification  of  girls'  schools 277 

2.  Courses  of  study  in  girls'  schools  (Hohere  Madchen- 

schulen) 285 

3.  Distribution  of  girls'  schools  (with  tables)       .         .  298 

4.  Girls'  gymnasia 304 

5.  Women  in  the  universities 313 

6.  Continuation    schools    (Fortbildungsschulen)    for 

teachers 323 

7.  Salaries  of  women  teachers  (with  tables)         .         .  330 

8.  The  higher  education  of  women  considered   .        .  341 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Conclusions 351 

1.  General  organization  and  management  .        .         .  351 

2.  Position  of  the  secondary  schools  in  the  system      .  354 

3.  Classical   and    scientific    instruction    in    separate 

institutions 356 

4.  Concentration  in  studies 357 

5.  Teachers'  training 363 

6.  Suggestions  for  requirements  in  America       .         .  365 

7.  Teachers'  examinations 366 

8.  Departmental  teachers 368 

9.  Amount  of  work  given  to  pupils      ....  371 

10.  Sex  of  teachers 373 

11.  The  separation  of  the  sexes 375 

13.  The  higher  education  of  women      ....  377 
13.  Effect   of   higher  education   upon   the   health  of 

women 379 

Bibliography 385 

Index 391 


THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM 
OF   GERMANY. 

IC047 

CHAPTEK  I. 

orgaxizatiox  axd  management. 

1.  Introductory. — Differentiation  of  German 
Schools. 

The  secondary  schools  of  Germany  do  not  form, 
as  in  America,  a  second  block  in  a  tripartite  pyram- 
idal system  of  primary,  secondary,  and  higher  edu- 
cation. 3  In  a  certain  significant  sense  the  German 
secondary  schools  form  a  system  by  themselves,  or, 
more  strictly  speaking,  they  comprise  several  distinct 
systems,  each  having  a  special  end  in  view.  The 
first  in  rank  of  these  are  the  humanistic  gymna- 
sia {humanistische  Gymnasien).  "With  their  courses 
steeped  in  classic  lore,  they  have  for  their  special 
aim  the  preparation  of  students  for  the  university. 
They  articulate  poorly  with  the  people's  schools 
(  Volksschulen),  and,  unless  the  transition  from  the 
people's  schools  to  the  gymnasia  is  made  early,  it  is 
impossible  for  boys  trained  in  the  former  to  enter 
the  latter,  j  The  teachers  in  the  gymjiasia  strongly 
urge  that  the  pupils  coming  to  them  be  prepared 
in  their  own  preparatory  schools  (the  Vorschuleii)^ 

1 


2       SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

rather  than  in  the  people's  schools.  ^The  character- 
istic feature  of  the  gymnasia  is  the  classical  basis  of 
their  curricula.  A  broad  line  of  demarcation  sep- 
arates tliem  from  a  second  class,  the  so-called  real- 
schools  (EealscJmlen).  The  latter  have  in  view  the 
fitting  of  students  for  business  vocations,  or  for  sub- 
sequent study  in  various  technical  higher  institu- 
tions. A  compromise  between  the  two,  which  is  a 
product  of  later  development,  and  which  receives 
much  favour  from  certain  classes,  is  the  Real-gymna- 
sium. This  school,  although  having  less  classical 
instruction  than  the  gymnasium,  like  it,  has  little 
direct  connection  with  the  primary  education  offered 
in  the  people's  schools.  It,  too,  prefers,  and  virtu- 
ally demands  for  entrance,  special  preparation  and 
an  early  transition  from  the  j)eople's  schools  if  loss 
of  time  is  not  to  ensue.  \  The  boys  who  are  pre- 
destined by  their  parents  to  pursue  higher  studies 
must  begin  them  at  an  early  age — say  at  ten  or 
eleven  years.*  When  a  course  of  life  is  mapped  out 
and  entered  upon,  the  Germans  assume  that  it  will 
be  pursued  to  the  end  ;  there  is  no  readjustment  of 
ill-planned  and  wrongly  selected  paths  of  labour ;  no 
grafting  of  a  new  branch  upon  an  old  stock  with 
the  expectation  of  abundant  and  desirable  fruit. 
With  them  there  are  many  distinct  classes  of  so- 
ciety and  business,  and  they  cannot  believe  that  prep- 
aration in  one  direction  may  at  the  same  time  serve 
as  preparation  in  another.  Although  "all  roads  lead 
to  Rome,"  their  view  is  that  only  one  leads  to  the 

*  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Educatiou,  1889-'90,  vol. 
i,  p.  298. 


ORGANIZATION  AND   MANAGEMENT.  3 

university.  "W'e  may  make  the  general  statement 
that  the  universities  of  the  United  States  open  their 
doors  to  all.  The  Germans,  with  their  broad  views 
concerning  scientific  work  in  the  universities,  and 
their  profound  respect  for  scientific  investigation, 
whether  it  relates  to  road  dust  or  to  the  stars,  never- 
theless make  sharp  distinctions  as  to  the  relative 
worth  of  knowledge  in  the  elementary  courses. 

Only  one  course,  the  classical,  is  conceived  by 
most  of  them  to  adequately  prepare  for  future  scien- 
tific or  scholarly  investigation.  In  the  United  States 
some  sort  of  a  higher  education  is  offered  to  all,  no 
matter  what  the  direction  of  the  elementary  and  sec- 
ondary work  ;  and  many  a  man  who  would  have 
been  barred  forever  from  the  privileges  of  university 
training,  had  a  knowledge  of  the  classics  been  de- 
manded as  a  prerequisite  foundation,  has  lived  to 
demonstrate  the  fact  that  he  could  profit  by  univer- 
sity training,  and  has  been  able  to  make  as  penetrat- 
ing research  and  as  valuable  discoveries  in  the  realm 
of  scientific  investigation  as  his  classically  trained 
contemporaries.  This  is  not  to  dej)reciate  in  the 
smallest  degree  the  value  of  the  classics,  but  simply  to 
show  that  the  time-honoured  classics  do  not  form  the 
only  mental  pabulum  that  may  be  offered  to  develop 
the  mind.  Digging  out  Greek  and  Latin  roots  un- 
doubtedly serves  as  excellent  preliminary  training  for 
the  future  theologian,  professor,  lawyer,  physician, 
or  scientist,  but  it  is  not  the  only  form  of  mental 
gymnastics  that  can  be  found  for  exercising  the 
powers  of  the  future  scholar.  Even  conservative 
Germany  is  beginning  to   throw  off   the  bonds  of 


4       SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

conservatism,  and  many  of  its  foremost  men  main- 
tain that  pupils  from  the  non-classical  schools  ought 
to  be  admitted  to  all  the  university  faculties  without 
restriction,  save,  perhaps,  those  of  theology  and  juris- 
pr^idence. 

/  With  the  idea  in  mind  that  they  can  not  well 
serve  two  masters  at  the  same  time,  the  Germans 
have  differentiated  their  school  system,  each  class  of 
schools  aiming  to  accomplish  a  special,  well-defined 
purpose.  They  are  much  averse  to  a  mixing  of 
courses  and  to  a  division  of  energy.  Hence  in  Ger- 
many we  do  not  find,  as  is  common  in  America,  all 
forms  of  secondary  schools  under  the  same  general 
name,  and  attempting  to  give  instruction  in  a  multi- 
plicity of  directions.  In  America  the  "  high  school " 
is  the  institution  where  both  boys  and  girls  may  re- 
ceive secondary  instruction,  and  this  instruction  may 
take  the  various  directions  indicated  by  the  terms 
ancient  classical  course,  Latin  scientific  course,  Eng- 
lish course,  general  science  course,  business  course, 
etc.  To  the  German,  with  his  predilection  for  a 
special  name  to  fit  each  individual  object,  and  with 
his  disgust  for  collective  terms  which  may  apply  to 
various  things,  the  appellation  "  high  school "  would 
be  sadly  inappropriate.*  It  is  still  more  incompre- 
hensible to  them  to  think  of  offering  all  of  the  above 
courses  in  the  same  school.  In  Germany  there  is 
not  only  a  special  class  of  schools  for  each  course  of 

*  Their  word  "Hochschule"  comprises  the  universities  and 
technical  schools.  The  term,  however,  is  seldom  used,  prefer- 
ence being  given  to  the  special  designations. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  5 

study,  but  .there  are  also  separate  schools  for  boys 


and  girls.*  i 


2.   Classification  axd  General  Definition  of 
Secondary  Schools. 

According  to  the  end  to  be  attained,  the  G  erman 
secondary  schools  for  boys  are  classed  in  general 
as  gymnasia,  or  Gelehrtenschulen,  and  real-schools 
{Eealschulcn).  By  gymnasia,  or  Gelehrtenschulen, 
are  meant  literary  or  classical  schools.  Expressed 
in  a  few  words,  they  are  schools  where  the  classics 
form  the  core  of  the  instruction,  and  whose  aim  is  to 
fit  for  university  study.  Fliigel  defines  Eealschule 
as  "  a  school  in  which  arts  and  sciences,  as  well  as 
languages,  are  taught,"  or  as  "  schools  of  utility." 
They  make  the  sciences  predominant  in  the  course, 
modern  languages  are  substituted  for  the  classics, 
and  their  aim  is  to  fit  for  entrance  to  certain  tech- 
nical schools  and  to  prepare  for  commercial  and  in- 
dustrial pursuits.  A  modification  of  either  of  these 
two  general  classes,  or  a  compromise  between  the 
two,  gives  rise  to  the  various  forms  of  institutions, 
such  as  the  Eeal-gymnasium  and  others,  which  ap- 
pear as  subclasses  below. 

Girls'  higher  schools  are  not  usually  recognised 
by  law  as  higher  schools  on  the  same  plane  as  the 
secondary  institutions  for  boys.  However,  they  are 
nominally,  by  common  consent,  in  part  so  recognised, 

*  It  may  be  noted  that  in  some  of  the  Eastern  cities  of  the 
United  States  there  is  a  partial  differentiation  of  high  schools 
for  different  courses,  and  also  separate  schools  for  the  sexes. 


G       SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

and  no  treatment  of  secondary  institutions  would  be 
adequate  Avhicli  omitted  them.  In  general  the  girls' 
higher  schools  are  classed  as  hohere  Mildchenschulen 
or  hohere  Tochtcrschulen.  They  aim  to  give  a  lib- 
eral course  of  training,  including  considerable  ac- 
quaintance with  modern  languages  and  some  of  the 
household  arts,  but  rigidly  exclude  all  instruction 
in  the  classics,  and  any  extended  study  of  mathe- 
matics and  natural  sciences.  The  special  concep- 
tions of  the  various  girls'  schools  will  be  given  de- 
tailed notice  in  a  separate  chapter.* 

The  Prussian  secondary  schools  for  boys  include  : 

Gymnasia,  with  nine-year  courses. 

Progymnasia,  with  six-year  or  seven-year  courses. 

Eeal-schools,  («)  with  Latin,  which  include 

1.  Eeal-gymnasia,  with  nine-year  courses. 

2.  Eeal-progymnasia,  with  six-year  courses. 
(b)  Without  Latin,  which  include 

1.  Higher  real-schools  {ObeiTealschule?i),  with 
nine-year  courses. 

2.  Eeal-schools,  with  six-year  courses — in  Prussia 
called  higher  burgher  schools  {hohere  Biirgerscliulen). 

In  many  parts  of  Germany  the  higher  burgher 
schools  are  not  included  with  the  secondary  schools. 
However,  when  not  thus  included,  there  are  real- 
schools  corresponding  to  those  in  Prussia.  In  most 
of  the  states  the  higher  burgher  school  is  simply  a 
common  or  people's  school,  with  a  continuation  or 
Fortbildungs  course. 

Bavaria  regards  all  the  secondary  schools  as  fall- 

*  Chapter  V. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  Y 

ing  under  two  heads :  (a)  the  humanistic  schools 
and  (/;)  technical  institutions.  The  former  include 
only  the  classical  gymnasia  with  nine-year  courses. 
The  latter  include : 

1.  Eeal-schools,  with  six-year  courses. 

2.  Eeal-gymnasia,  with  nine-year  courses. 

3.  Industrial  schools,  having  courses  two  years 
additional  to  the  real-school  course. 

These  industrial  schools  have  courses  in  three 
directions :  (a)  mechanical  engineering,  {b)  chemis- 
try, and  (c)  mining  engineering.  There  are  only 
three  such  technical  schools  in  Bavaria,  one  being  at 
Munich,  one  at  Xiirnberg,  and  one  at  Augsburg. 

Wiirtemberg  has  the  gymnasia,  real-schools,  and 
the  so-called  elementary  schools  {Eleme^itdrschulen). 
Unlike  the  rest  of  the  states,  the  gymnasium  course 
is  ten  years  instead  of  nine.  It  begins  a  year  earlier 
than  in  the  other  states,  so  that  the  ultimate  end 
attained  is  about  the  same.  The  elementary  schools 
have  courses  of  two  years,  and  are  special  prepara- 
tory schools  for  the  gymnasia.  In  all  the  other 
states  there  are  the  Vorschulen  in  connection  with 
many  of  the  gymnasia.  These  have  a  course  of  three 
years  preparatory  to  the  gymnasia  proper.  All  of 
these  special  fitting  schools  are  considered,  however, 
as  a  part  of  the  higher  school  organization,  since  the 
character  and  direction  of  the  work  are  one  with  the 
chief  distinguishing  characteristics  of  secondary 
school  work.  A  burgher  school  may  have  as  long  a 
course  as  a  real-school  or  a  progymnasium  ;  but, 
since  the  course  in  the  former  is  confined  to  the  nec- 
essary or  practical  studies  and  includes  no  provision 


8       SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

for  the  more  liberal  arts,  it  would  not  be  classed  with 
the  secondary  schools. 

In  Baden  all  the  secondary  schools  are  called  in- 
termediate schools  {Mittelschulen).  They  are  of  the 
same  kind  as  in  Prussia,  with  only  slight  deviations 
in  length  and  arrangement  of  courses.  For  exam- 
ple, the  real-schools  in  Baden  have  Latin  as  an  elec- 
tive study,  while  most  real-schools  in  Germany  do  not 
offer  it  at  all.  Baden  includes  in  the  secondary 
school  system  the  higher  burgher  schools  as  well  as 
the  real-schools.  Tlie  higher  burgher  schools  are  of 
two  kinds :  {a)  with  four-year  or  five-year  courses, 
and,  as  in  the  gymnasia,  Greek  may  be  taken  as  an 
elective  ;  [b)  with  four-year  or  five-year  courses,  and, 
as  in  the  real-schools,  Latin  is  offered  as  an  elective. 
Baden  also  includes  the  higher  girls'  schools  with 
the  secondary  schools  (MittelscJiulen).  This  is  not 
the  case  in  most  of  the  states  pf  the  empire. 

In  Saxony  and  the  other  states  the  schools  are 
divided  quite  similarly  to  those  described  above. 

3.     DlSTKIBUTIOX    OF    SCHOOLS   AND    PUPILS. 

In  treating  of  the  educational  systems  of  Germany 
and  the  United  States  it  is  very  common  for  writers 
to  compare  our  high  school,  though  unjustly,  Avith  the 
German  gymnasium.  In  that  way  the  idea  becomes 
prevalent  in  America  that  all  the  secondary  schools 
of  Germany  are  gymnasia.  But  this  is  very  errone- 
ous. A  very  large  number  of  secondary  schools,  five 
hundred  and  thirty-six  out  of  a  total  of  a  thousand 
and  sixty-four,  consist  of  some  form  of  real-school. 
Xearly  one  half  of  all  the  pupils  in  secondary  schools 


ORGANIZATION  AND   MANAGEMENT.  9 

attend  the  latter.  The  subjoined  figures  indicate 
approximately  the  proportion  in  each  class  of  school 
in  the  empire.* 

Gymnasia  or  classical  schools 134,845 

Real-schools  with  Latin 50,947 

Real-schools  without  Latin 62,579 

Total 248,371 

See  also  the  complete  table  (page  10). 

Hence  a  comparison  of  the  systems  must  include 
these  non-gymnasial  schools  as  a  part  of  the  system. 
It  would  be  as  erroneous  to  select  only  those  high 
schools  of  the  United  States  that  have  a  thorough 
four  years'  classical  course  and  speak  of  these  as  the 
high  schools  of  the  United  States  as  to  select  only 
the  gymnasia  and  represent  the  secondary  system  of 
Germany  by  them.  The  only  fair  comparison  to  be 
made  is  by  taking  the  American  high  schools  as  an 
entirety,  including  at  least  all  those  having  courses 
that  meet  state  requirements,  and  all  classes  of  Ger- 
man secondary  schools,  whether  classical  or  scientific 
in  their  curricula,  those  having  ten-year  as  well  as 
those  having  twelve-year  courses. 

The  accompanying  tables  will  perhaps  suffice  to 
show  that  the  gymnasia  proper  do  not  include  nearly 
all  of  the  secondary  schools  of  Germany.  Moreover, 
it  ought  to  demonstrate  the  fallacious  position  taken 
by  those  who  make  sweeping  statements  concerning 
the  meagreness  of  work  done  in  American  high  schools 
as  compared  with  German  secondary  schools.     Xot 

*  Bureau  of  Education,  1893-'94,  vol.  i,  p.  298. 


10    sp:condary  school  system  op  Germany. 


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ORGANIZATION  AND   MANAGEMENT.  H 

all  of  their  secondary  institutions  cover  the  gymna- 
sial  courses,  nor  are  all  American  high  schools  of  the 
low  standard  that  is  usually  thought  of  when  the 
average  is  mentioned.  Undoubtedly  the  best  Ameri- 
can high  schools  will  bear  favourable  comparison 
with  the  German  secondary  schools  for  the  corre- 
sponding periods  that  they  cover  and  in  the  corre- 
sponding lines  of  work  which  they  attempt.  But 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that  a  comparison  of  non- 
classical  high  schools  with  German  gymnasia  is 
unfair.  Only  the  so-called  classical  high  schools 
may  be  put  in  the  same  category,  and  even  then 
we  must  bear  in  mind  the  disparity  of  ages  of  the 
graduates  of  the  two  (see  table  below).  The  non- 
classical  schools,  if  compared,  must  be  put  beside 
some  form  of  real-school  and  not  beside  the  gym- 
nasium. , 

The  American  high  school  is  the  people's  college 
and  the  courses  of  study  represent  all  the  branches 
of  a  liberal  secondary  education,  while  the  gymnasium 
is  a  classical  school  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  word. 
Were  the  ages  of  the  pupils  in  the  high  schools  the 
same  as  those  of  the  gymnasium  pupils,  we  might 
then  make  the  comparison  with  such  schools  as  have 
the  "  ancient  classical  courses."  Even  then  the  com- 
parison would  be  only  partially  legitimate,  as  the 
Germans  would  regard  our  high  schools  having  the 
strongest  classical  courses  as  real-schools  with  a  little 
Latin  and  Greek,  or  at  best  as  real-gymnasia. 

As  will  be  shown  later,  the  German  boy  begins 
the  classics  many  years  before  American  boys  reach 
the  high  school,  which  usually  brings  the  first  intro- 


12     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

diiction  to  Latin  and  Greek.  Hence  our  schools  can 
not  pretend  to  give  as  thorough  training  in  the 
chissics  as  is  given  in  the  German  gymnasia.  The 
only  reason  one  may  have  for  asserting  that  the  one 
class  of  pupils  is  better  educated  than  the  other  at 
a  given  age,  or  that  one  is  better  fitted  for  the  uni- 
versity than  the  other,  must  be  founded  upon  a 
settlement  of  the  question  of  what  studies  help  best 
to  educate  and  Avhat  studies  best  prepare  for  college. 
We  can  only  compare  two  quantities  when  they  are 
the  same  in  kind.  When  the  amounts  of  study  have 
been  set  forth,  then  a  measure  of  educational  values 
must  come  in  before  the  question  can  be  settled. 

4.  Ages  of  Pupils  iis"  Secondary  Schools. 

A  comparison  of  ages  shows  us  that  German 
boys  are  in  the  gymnasia  (also  the  real-gymnasia  and 
the  higher  real-schools)  to  a  considerably  greater 
age  than  American  boys  are  in  the  high  schools. 
The  gymnasial  course  being  nominally  one  of  nine 
years,  with  three  years  in  the  Vorschule  or  prepara- 
tory school,  and  the  legal  age  at  which  children  begin 
school  being  six  years,  the  normal  age  at  graduation 
would  be  eighteen  years.  But  during  my  visits  to 
the  schools  I  was  much  surprised  to  find  in  the  upper 
classes  pupils  who  were  no  longer  boys  in  appearance, 
but  full-grown  men,  many  of  them  with  mustaches. 
They  appeared  to  be  fully  as  old  as  freshmen  and 
sophomores  in  American  colleges.  On  looking  up 
the  statistics  of  ages  I  found  that  my  estimations 
were  quite  right,  as  the  accompanying  table  will 
show. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


13 


Age  of  Graduates  (Prussia). 


DATE. 

Under  17. 

n  years. 

18  years. 

19  years. 

20  years. 

Over  21 
years.* 

1871-75 

Per  cent. 

o.rr 

0.6 
0.47 
0.17 
0.07 

Per  cent. 
5.5 
5.3 
5.0 
3.6 
3.6 

Per  cent. 
19.1 
19.1 
18.0 
16.3 
20.1 

Per  cent. 
28.1 
27.5 
26.3 
26.4 
27.1 

Per  cent. 
24.9 
24.9 

24.4 

25.8 
24.8 

Per  cent. 
23.0 

1876-"79      

23  0 

1880-'a5 

26.3 

1886-'90    

27  6 

Gymnasia,  1893- '94 .... 

24.1 

*  Paulsen's  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  vol.  ii.    See  also 
Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hOheren  Schulen  Deutschlands,  1896-'97. 

It  thus  appears  that  an  exceedingly  small  number 
ai-e  under  eighteen  years  at  the  time  of  leaving  the 
gymnasia,  while  one  fourth  of  the  number  are  over 
twenty,  and  79  per  cent  are  nineteen  years  of  age. 
Moreover,  the  table  indicates  that  the  number  under 
nineteen  is  constantly  decreasing  while  the  number 
above  that  age  is  constantly  increasing.].  From  the 
official  programmes  of  1895-'96  and  1896-'97,  I  find 
that  many  graduates  are  twenty-one  or  twenty-two 
y^rs  of  age.  Concerning  the  year  1890,  Dr.  Juling 
reports  that  4,251  pupils  announced  themselves  as 
candidates  for  examination.  Of  this  number,  3,702 
were  successful,  while  549  were  held  back  to  try  it 
again.  Of  those  who  passed  the  examination,  6  were 
under  seventeen  years  and  98  were  seventeen  years  old. 

Dr.  Juling  further  wTites  that  "  Only  579  stu- 
dents were  of  the  normal  age  of  eighteen  years, 
or,  in  other  words,  only  one  sixth  or  16f  j)er  cent.'' 
Put  in  tabular  form,  the  same  results  would  read 
thus  : 

f  736,  or  19  per  cent,  were  under  nineteen. 

Year     |  972,  or  26  per  cent,  were  nineteen. 

1890.    ^  959,  or  26  per  cent,  were  twenty. 

[  1,035,  or  28  per  cent,  were  twenty-one  and  over. 


14     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Thus  only  736  were  under  nineteen,  while  nearly 
3,000,  or  80  per  cent,  were  nineteen  and  over.* 

I  On  inquiring  among  university  students  the  rea- 
son for  the  advanced  age  of  the  pupils,  I  learned 
that  two  causes  are  operative  in  raising  the  age 
above  the  normal.  The  first  is  that  many  pupils 
Avho  enter  the  secondary  schools,  especially  those 
who  enter  from  the  people's  schools,  are  required  to 
do  the  first  year's  work  over  because  of  their  poor 
preparation.  Then  a  good  many  can  not  finish  in 
the  nine  years  because  the  requirements  are  too 
heavy,  and  they  are  obliged  to  remain  in  the  last 
class  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  years. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  age 
of  the  graduates  is  considerably  greater  than  that 
of  high-school  graduates  in  the  United  States.  The 
average  age  at  graduation  from  Harvard  is  about 
twenty-two  and  a  half  years,  which  means  that 
the  preparatory  schools  are  completed  at  eighteen 
and  a  half.  It  is  true  that  in  the  West,  where  boys 
work  on  the  farms  until  well  grown  up,  the  average 
age  is  sometimes  greater.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  not  uncommon  to  find  high-school  graduates 
only  sixteen  years  of  age.  It  is  not  impossible  to 
find  boys  well  along  in  their  freshman  year  in  col- 
lege by  their  sixteenth  birthday.  But  it  is  only  fair, 
of  course,  to  draw  the  comparison  with  such  as 
enter  school  at  the  normal  age  and  make  the  steady 
march  without  interruption.  In  America  averages 
are  delusive.  Every  one  is  a  law  unto  himself.  But 
in  Germany  what  one  does  may  be  asserted  of  al- 

*  Das  Gyranasium  luit  zehnjiihrigen  Kursus. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  15 

most  everybody  else  in  the  s:ime  category.  What 
is  once  begun  is  carried  out  with  the  regularity  of  a 
machine.  For  the  first  eight  years  of  school  life 
strict  laws  compel  pupils  to  be  in  attendance. 
Nothing  but  sickness  can  absolve  them  from  the  ob- 
ligation. The  classes  move  along  with  great  regu- 
larity as  regards  age.  In  the  Eoyal  Gymnasium  in 
Leipsic,  I  found  the  average  age  of  the  pupils  who 
had  just  entered  tli^  lowest  class,  Sexta,  to  be  ten 
years,  ten  months  and  sixteen  days.  The  average 
variation  from  this  was  very  small.  The  average  of 
the  class  just  finishing  was  nineteen  years,  ten 
months.  Sexta,  the  lowest  class,  contained  80  pupils, 
Avhile  Upper  Prima,  the  highest,  contained  54,  or 
nearly  70  per  cent  of  those  who  started  nine  years 
before.  Of  these  pupils,  47  entered  this  school  six 
or  more  years  previously,  and  37  had  been  in  the  same 
school  the  entire  nine  years.  This  does  not  mean 
that  70  per  cent  of  all  who  reach  the  fourth  year 
of  school  life  continue  until  they  finish  the  gymna- 
sium course.  These  figures  are  for  the  gymnasia 
alone,  and  take  no  account  of  the  people's  schools, 
real-schools,  etc.  They  simply  indicate  the  great 
regularity  that  is  maintained  when  once  the  gymna- 
sium course  is  begun.  The  separation  between  the 
people's  schools  and  the  secondary  schools  begins 
with  the  fourth  year  of  school  life,  and,  although  it 
is  safe  to  predict  that  a  very  large  percentage  of 
those  who  once  enter  the  gymnasia  will  continue  to 
the  close,  yet  of  the  great  masses  who  enter  on  the 
non-classical  branch  of  the  road  very  few  may  ever 
expect  to  reach  the  university. 


IG     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 


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ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  17 

5.  Pkeparatory  Schools  ( Vorschulen). 

The  question  of  preparatory  schools  is  one  which 
receives  lively  discussion  in  German  educational  and 
political  circles.  On  this  question  the  teachers  in 
the  people's  schools  and  the  socialists  may  be  said 
to  be  generally  arrayed  against  the  teachers  in  the 
higher  schools  and  universities  and  the  aristocratic 
and  conservative  political  parties.  The  chief  objec- 
tion raised  against  the  Vorschulen  is  that  they  en- 
gender social  class  distinctions.  At  an  early  age  the 
children  of  the  well-to-do  are  placed  in  these  pre- 
paratory schools,  and  no  common  ground  of  meeting 
is  possible  for  the  children  of  the  rich  and  the  poor. 
Opponents  claim  that  class  distinctions  would  in  no 
wise  be  decreased  were  all  the  Vorschulen  abolished, 
but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  the  very  intermingling 
would  bring  them  all  the  earlier  to  consciousness. 
To  one  who  has  passed  through  a  system  of  public 
schools  with  foundation  principles  proclaiming  equal- 
ity of  opportunities  for  all,  it  is  difficult  to  compre- 
hend the  validity  of  the  above  assumptions.  How- 
ever, a  residence  of  some  duration  in  a  European 
country  can  not  fail  to  give  one  an  insight  into  the 
role  played  by  tradition  in  all  long-settled  countries, 
and  a  feeling  that  radical  departures  from  the  tradi- 
tional following  of  spheres  of  activity  into  which 
people  are  born  would  mean  social  disintegration. 
Moreover,  for  a  long  time  to  come  in  all  monarchical 
countries  there  must  be  and  will  be  avenues  in  which 
people  can  walk  apart  from  those  unlike  them- 
selves.    Even  we,  in  our  country  Avith  its  fundamen- 


18     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

tally  democratic  institutions,  have  select  circles.  "We 
do  not  generally  wish  to  affiliate  ourselves  with  those 
of  dissimilar  aims,  tastes,  aspirations,  and  abilities- 
We  maintain  the  right  to  foster  class  distinctions  in 
many  important  directions.  European  class  distinc- 
tions differ  from  ours  more  in  degree  than  in  kind. 

Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg,  and  Baden  have  no  Vor- 
schulen,  and  the  class  distinctions  are  said  to  be  just 
as  strong  there  as  in  other  parts  of  Germany.*  This 
would,  however,  prove  nothing  in  itself  either  way, 
for  school  organization  is  only  one  element  of  the 
problem.  There  are  many  other  facts  entering  into 
their  political  and  social  life,  and  these  kingdoms, 
being  parts  of  the  entire  empire,  share  in  the  na- 
tional views  on  social  and  political  questions.  The 
supporters  of  the  Vorschulen  maintain,  with  un- 
doubted justice,  that  the  private  Vorschule  offers 
many  advantages  in  the  superior  character  of  its 
instruction.  Not  only  the  methods  but  the  selec- 
tion of  material  insures  a  speedier  and  better  prep- 
aration for  the  superstructure  which  is  to  be  erected 
later.  The  pupils  also  meet  with  those  of  similar 
aims,  capabilities,  and  attainments ;  this  insures 
greater  incentives  to  individual  exertion,  and  a  more 
even  development,  with  none  of  the  drawbacks  and 
hindrances  encountered  in  schools  for  the  masses, 
where  the  lame  and  the  lazy  impede  the  progress  of 
the  strong  and  the  ambitious. 

The  following  table  shows  the  numbers  in  the 

*  See  Rein's  Encyclopadisches  Handbuch  der  Padagogik, 
article  Gymnasial  Padagogik,  by  Schiller,  p.  79;  also  Schiller's 
Handbuch  der  Padagogik. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


19 


Prussian  Vorschulen  connected  with  tlie  various  sec- 
ondary institutions  from  the  summer  semester  of 
1892  to  the  winter  semester  of  1894-'95  :  * 


Gymmisia. 

Pro- 
gymnasia. 

Real- 
gymnasia. 

Real-pro- 
gytnn.isia. 

Higher 
real-schools. 

Real- 
schools. 

Summer,  18!)^ 

Winter,  lSll:.'-"93 

Siuiiiner,  IS'.CJ 

Winter,  lS'.t3-'94 

Siuniner,  IS'.a 

Winter,  l«'.t4-'95 

9,326 
9,485 
9,147 
9,413 
9.011 
9,181 

390 
459 
30T 
259 
293 
298 

4,002 
4,081 
4,443 
3,903 
3,802 
3,813 

1,.540 
1..50S 
1.203 
1,318 
1,096 
1,070 

885 
903 
1,140 
1,162 
1,341 
1,664 

3,830 
3.806 
3,814 
3,783 
3,701 
3,406 

6.  ORGANizATioisr. — Eelation"  to  State  and  City. 

I  Although  each  state  is  practically  independent  in 
the  government  of  its  schools,  and  there  is  not  in 
the  strict  sense  of  the  phrase  a  national  system  of 
schools,  yet  there  is  a  certain  unity  in  the  school 
organization,  i  There  are  minor  deviations  from  the 
general  plan  in  the  various  states,  but  the  broad  lines 
of  a  unified  school  policy  may  be  said  to  be  operative 
over  the  entire  empire.  To  facilitate  this  unity  of 
principle  and  purpose,  a  school  commission  {Reichs- 
SchulJcommission),  consisting  of  six  members  selected 
from  various  parts  of  the  empire|llias  been  organized 
since  1875.  One  member  is  chosen  from  each  of 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  and  AYi;rtemberg,  these 
being  the  four  kingdoms  and  the  principal  states  of 
the  German  Empire.  A  fifth  member  is  chosen  alter- 
nately from  Baden,  Hesse,  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  Meck- 
lenburg-Schwerin,  each  in  turn  having  a  representa- 
tive for  a  period  of  two  years.     The  sixth  member  is 

*  Statistisches    Jahrbuch   der    hoheren   Schulen    Deutsch- 
lands,  1896. 


20     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

chosen  alternately  from  the  remaining  states,  each 
having  a  representative  two  years  at  a  time.*  This 
commission  meets  twice  each  year  for  the  purpose  of 
transacting  business  relating  to  the  Avelfare  of  all  the 
schools  of  the  empire.  The  business  office  of  the 
commission  is  in  Berlin.  Each  of  the  states  has  its 
own  methods  of  managing  its  particular  school  mat- 
ters. There  is  a  great  similarity  among  them  all, 
yet  individual  differences. 

Prussia,  the  largest,  has  the  most  complicated 
yet  most  highly  organized  governing  system  of  all. 
There  is  a  governing  body  having  a  general  over- 
sight of  all  the  educational  affairs  of  the  kingdom. 
This  highest  body  is  called  the  Ministerium  of  Spir- 
itual, Instructional,  and  Medicinal  Affairs  {Minis- 
terium cler  geistlichen,  UnterricMs-  und  Medizinalr 
Angelegenheite7i).  The  chief  official  is  the  state's 
minister,  the  present  incumbent  being  Dr.  Bosse,  of 
Berlin.  The  Ministerium  has  four  departments  :  (a) 
The  department  of  spiritual  affairs,  (b)  two  depart- 
ments relating  to  public  instruction,  (c)  a  depart- 
ment relating  to  medicine.  At  the  head  of  each 
department  is  a  director  who  has  an  advisory  board 
of  ten  or  more  members.  All  the  members  of  these 
four  departments  reside  in  Berlin.  All  orders  of  a 
general  nature  relating  to  the  entire  kingdom  origi- 
nate with  the  Ministerium,  each  department  paying 
attention  to  its  own  special  matters.  The  depart- 
ment of  instruction  has  about  thirty  members.  The 
departments  of  instruction  have  among  their  mem- 


*  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  dei-  hoheren  Schulen. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  21 

bers  a  few  specially  competent  schoolmen  wlio  look 
after  the  technicalities  relating  to  instruction,  teach- 
ing force,  courses  of  study,  etc.  These  men  acquaint 
themselves  as  much  as  possible  with  coiiditions  of 
the  schools  through  the  kingdom.  This  they  accom- 
plish by  personal  visitation  and  inspection  of  differ- 
ent localities  and  by  a  study  of  reports  submitted  to 
them  by  local  officers. 

/;/  To  manage  all  tlie  details  for  the  entire  state 
would  form  too  great  a  task,  and  probably  an  unde- 
sirable one,  and  hence  the  management  not  general 
in  nature  is  delegated  to  each  of  the  several  prov- 
inces. Each  province  has  what  may  be  called  a 
provincial  school  board  {SchnlkoIIegium),  consisting 
of  several  members,  varying  with  the  size  of  the 
province.  The  seat  of  ithese  school  boards  is  at  the 
capital  of  the  province."^ 

The  foregoing  boards  have  only  a  general  over- 
sight of  the  provincial  school  affairs  and  the  details 
of  management  are  left  to  the  local  school  commit- 
tees {Schnldeputation)  and  to  the  local  inspectors 
{SchulinspeJdoren).  The  members  of  the  Schnl- 
deputation are  members  of  the  city  council.  They 
are  usually  chosen  by  the  city  magistrate  or  mayor, 
but  their  ajjpointment  must  be  confirmed  by  the 
state  government.  The  Schnldeputation  has  charge 
of  the  external  welfare  of  the  schools,  such  as  the 

*  That  is,  at  the  following  places :  For  East  Prussia,  Konigs- 
berg ;  West  Prussia,  Dantzic ;  Brandenburg,  Potsdam  ;  Pom- 
erania,  Stettin ;  Posen,  Posen ;  Silesia,  Breslau  ;  Saxon  Prus- 
sia, Magdeburg;  Westphalia,  jMlinster;  Hesse-Nassau,  Cassel; 
Rhenish  Prussia,  Coblentz ;  Hohenzollern's  Land,  Sigmaringen. 


22     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

erection  of  buildings,  hygienic  surroundings,  etc., 
unci  also  assists  in  the  selection  of  directors  and 
teachers.*  Teachers  are  usually  selected  by  the 
local  authorities,  but  the  Ministerium  or  the  King 
must  confirm  the  appointment.  There  are  also  va- 
rious school  inspectors  who  are  limited  to  districts 
within  the  provinces.  These  are  termed  District 
inspectors  {KreisschuUnsjJektoren). 

Besides  the  foregoing  boards  of  managers  which 
represent  the  three  divisions  of  government,  national, 
state,  and  local,  there  are  numerous  boards  of  man- 
agers of  various  academies  and  societies  which  are 
all  under  royal  or  state  authority,  and  in  a  certain 
sense  under  the  control  of  the  educational  depart- 
ment of  government,  f 

Thus  the  entire  educational  system,  though  man- 
ed  by  representatives,  is  virtually  under  royal  au- 

*  Dr.  A.  Petersilie,  Das  oilcntliche  Unterriehtswesen  iin 
deutsehen  Reiche,  p.  325. 

■(•  Among  the  institutions  comprised  under  the  educational 
department  thei'e  are,  besides  all  the  secondary  schools,  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  in  Berlin ;  Royal  Academy  of 
Science,  Berlin;  Royal  Museum,  Berlin;  National  Art  Gallery, 
Berlin ;  Royal  Geodetic  Institute  and  Central  Bureau  for  Inter- 
national Survey ;  Royal  Meteorological  Institute  of  Berlin ; 
Royal  Astro-physical  Observatory.  Potsdam  ;  royal  universities, 
of  which  there  are  nine,  besides  the  academy  at  Miinster  and  the 
lyceum  at  Braunsberg ;  the  three  royal  technical  high  schools  at 
Berlin,  Hanover,  and  Aachen  ;  the  royal  normal  schools  for  men 
and  for  women,  state  and  city  preparatory  institutions,  deaf- 
and-dumb  schools,  schools  for  the  blind,  Society  for  Art  Appro- 
priations, School  for  Teachers  of  Gymnastics,  public  higher 
gii'ls'  schools,  evangelical  normal  schools  for  women,  and  vari- 
ous learned  societies.     (Centralblatt,  1896,  p.  1  et  seq.) 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  23 

thority.  The  Minister  of  Education  is  selected  by 
the  King,  and  is  in  this  sense  a  royal  official.  The 
King  himself  often  personally  issues  decrees  and 
edicts  pertaining  to  educational  matters.  Appoint- 
ments to  teaching  positions  must  all  be  confirmed 
by  him  or  his  minister,  and  teachers  are  dependent 
upon  him  even  for  the  title  of  professor,  etc'  (See 
topic  Titles,  etc.)  * 

For  Saxony  it  suffices  to  say,  without  going  into 
details,  that  all  the  secondary  schools  are  either  royal 
(state)  institutions  or  are  otherwis3  erected  and 
managed  according  to  state  laws.  Several  cities 
maintain  gymnasia  or  real-schools  at  local  expense 
entirely,  but  over  even  these  the  Ministerium  has 
general  oversight  and  control.  Courses  of  study 
must  be  accepted  by  the  state  and  all  teachers  must 
have  their  appointments  confirmed  by  the  }.linis- 
terium.  In  those  schools  entirely  maintained  by  the 
cities,  the  director  and  the  chief  teachers  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  Minister  of  Education.  These  schools 
usually  have  a  committee  {ScJmlkommission),  con- 
sisting of  the  director,  one  member  of  the  city  coun- 
cil, and  two  members  appointed  by  the  Ministerium 
(upon  the  advice  of  the  council).  It  is  usually  the 
real-schools  that  are  maintained  by  the  cities.  Some 
schools  are  mixed  state  and  city  institutions  and  are 
governed  accordingly.  The  final  authority,  however, 
in  all  cases,  is  vested  in  the  state. 

In  Bavaria  the  highest  central  governing  body 
is  the   Ministerium   {Ministerium   des  Innern  fur 

*  Cf.  Centralblatt,  1896,  p.  315. 


24     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

KircJicn  vnd  ScJmlangelegenJieiten),  whose  executive 
officer  is  the  Minister.  To  manage  the  details  of 
government  there  is  a  Kollegium  composed  of  pro- 
fessors of  the  universities,  technical  schools,  gym- 
nasia, and  other  secondary  schools,  together  with  a 
number  of  physicians,  who  are  to  look  after  the 
hygienic  conditions  of  the  schools.  These  persons 
are  termed  Schulriithe,  or  school  advisers. 

The  instructional  and  religious  affairs  of  Baden 
are  managed  by  the  "  Ministerium  der  Justiz."  Since 
1886  there  has  been  a  board  of  advisers  severally 
called  Beirathe,  who  are  representatives  of  the  peo- 
ple of  the  city  in  which  the  school  is  located.  This 
advisory  body  stands  as  mediator  between  the  teach- 
ers and  the  Ministerium,  As  well  as  being  an  ad- 
visory body  it  serves  as  a  check  upon  one-sided  man- 
agement on  the  part  of  the  teachers.  This  com- 
mittee is  made  up  of  the  director  of  the  school,  one 
teacher  chosen  by  the  faculty,  and  three  or  four  Ober- 
schulriithe  of  the  city.  They  have  advisory  powers 
in  all  general  questions  of  organization,  hygienic 
conditions,  tuition  fees,  and  also  have  an  advisory 
voice  regarding  the  punishment  of  pupils,  especially 
expulsion.  All  teachers  are,  however,  state  officers, 
and  are  appointed  by  the  state.  Where  funds  are 
raised  by  contribution  from  any  particular  religious 
sect,  only  teachers  belonging  to  that  faith  may  be 
paid  from  such  funds.  This  law  has  been  operative 
only  since  1870  and  it  is  said  to  be  highly  satisfac- 
tory. Since  that  time  many  teachers  of  Jewish  faith 
have  been  added  to  the  teaching  force. 

A  division  of  the  "  Ministerium  des  Innern  und 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  25 

der  Justiz  "  has  oversight  of  the  educational  affairs 
in  Hesse.  The  gymnasial  institutions  receive  most 
of  their  suj^port  from  the  state,  from  private  endow- 
ments and  gifts,  and  from  the  tuition.  They  are 
managed  by  the  directors,  together  with  a  Kura- 
torium  similar  to  Baden.  The  real-schools,  on  the 
other  hand,  do  not  receive  so  much  of  their  support 
from  the  state,  but  the  buildings  and  appliances, 
and  a  part  of  the  teachers'  salaries,  are  furnished  by 
the  city.  Tuition  fees  go  toward  the  support  of 
teachers,  and  where  this  is  insufficient  the  state  fur- 
nishes the  balance.  In  both  the  gymnasia  and  the 
real-schools  the  teachers  are  state  officials  and  are 
selected  by  the  government,  or  the  city  appoints 
them  subject  to  confirmation  by  the  government. 
The  remaining  states  have  such  similar  methods  of 
management  that  it  will  be  unnecessary  to  go  further 
into  details  concerning  them. 

The  support  of  the  schools  comes  from  state 
funds,  from  local  taxation,  from  tuition,  and  from 
bequests  and  contributions.  The  patrons  of  the 
schools  pay  tuition  enough  to  insure  their  lively  in- 
terest in  its  wise  expenditure.  The  local  aid  is 
usually,  api^lied  toward  buildings,  appliances,  and  in 
some  cases  toward  teachers'  salaries.  In  most  cases 
free  residence  is  furnished  by  the  city  to  all  the 
teachers.  *  The  director  always  resides  in  the  school 
building,  which  is  constructed  with  that  end  in  view. 
The  remainder  of  the  support  comes  from  state 
funds.     The  state  contributes  most  largely  toward 

*  See  topic,  Pay  of  Teachers. 


26     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

the  gymnasia,  wliile  the  rcaL-schools  are  more  in 
the  hands  of  the  people.*  /  The  support  of  all 
the  secondary  schools  in  Prussia  during  1890  was 
derived  from  the  following  sources  :  5,545,020  marks 
from  state  funds,  14,327,590  marks  from  tuition, 
7,802,173  marks  from  city  funds,  1,903,304  marks 
from  property  belonging  to  the  schools,  and  the  re- 
mainder of  the  30,918,840  marks  was  derived  from 
gifts  and  interest  on  invested  school  funds. 

I  The  public  schools  of  Germany  are  not  public  in 
the  sense  of  being  free  schools.  With  the  exception 
of  the  people's  schools  (  Volkschuleu)  of  Prussia,  there 
are  no  schools  in  which  a  tuition  fee  is  not  exacted. 
The  amounts  vary  in  different  localities.  All  public 
schools  are  jjublic  in  the  sense  that  they  admit  with- 
out distinction  all  who  are  properly  prepared  to  enter, 
and  who  will  pay  the  necessary  tuition  fees.  |  Many 
of  the  schools  offer  a  certain  number  of  free  scholar- 
ships by  means  of  which  worthy  boys  of  exceptional 
attainments  may  secure  free  tuition.  However,  not 
many  of  the  very  poor  can  take  advantage  of  these, 
because  the  boys'  labour  cannot  well  be  dispensed 
with  in  the  family,  and  also  because  there  are  so 
many  other  necessary  expenses  connected  with 
attendance  at  these  secondary  schools.  Books  are 
furnished  by  the  pupils,  board  is  no  small  item,  and 
then  to  keep  up  appearances  in  the  matter  of  dress 
is  more  than  the  poor  can  provide  for.  Since  mainly 
the  sons  of  the  rich  attend  the  secondary  schools,  the 

*  According  to  Rethwisch,  Deutsphlands  hoheres  Schul- 
wesen  iin  19.  Jahrhundert,  p,  144, 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  27 

poor  going  generally  to  the  people's  schools,  the 
average  are  very  well  clothed,  and  all  must  wear  some 
uniform,  usually  a  special  kind  of  cap.  To  deviate 
from  custom  in  the  matter  of  dress  is  a  much  more 
serious  affair  with  them  than  with  people  in  Amer- 
ica ;  hence  the  expense  connected  with  securing  a 
secondary  education  debars  nearly  all  but  sons  of  the 
wealthy  or  the  well-to-do.  Below  are  indicated  the 
amounts  of  tuition  paid  in  various  states  and  a  few 
representative  cities : 

Marks  Yearly. 
Prussia,    gymnasia,   real-gymnasia,    higher    real- 
schools 120 

Prussia,  progymnasia,  real-progymnasia 100 

Prussia,  higher  burgher  schools  or  real-schools. . .     80 

In  same  if  Latin  is  taken 120 

Bavaria,  three  lowest  classes  (all  schools) 30 

Bavaria,  three  middle  classes  (all  schools) 3G 

Bavaria,  three  highest  classes  (all  schools) 40 

Baden,  three  lowest  classes  (all  schools) 75 

Baden,  other  six  classes  (all  schools) 84 

Hesse,  three  lowest  classes  (all  schools) 96 

Hesse,  other  six  classes  (all  schools) .- 108 

Dresden  and  Bremen  (all  schools) 120-180 

Leipsic  (all  schools) 80-240 

Hamburg,  gymnasia  and  real-gymnasia 192 

Hamburg,  real-schools 144 

Hamburg,  vorschulen 120 

It  is  the  custom  to  admit  sons  of  all  the  teachers 
or  of  university  professors  without  requiring  tuition. 
In  some  of  the  schools  five  per  cent,  of  all  the  pupils 
may  be  admitted  free. 

In  resume,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  while  the  peo- 
ple— the  patrons  of  the  schools — are  given  a  certain 
4 


/^ 


28     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

advisory  voice,  they  have  nothing  final  to  say  in  the 
management  of  their  children's  education.  Tliis  ad- 
visory function  is  fullillod  by  the  school  committees 
— the  Schuldeputation  in  Prussia,  the  Beiriithe  in 
Baden  and  Hesse,  the  Schulkollegium  in  Bavaria, 
and  by  similarly  empowered  bodies  in  other  states. 
In  each  of  these  local  bodies  the  director  of  the  in- 
stitution is  usually  one  of  the  members.  lie  is  sup- 
posed to  be  most  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
needs  of  the  school  and  is  a  qualified  representative  of 
the  scholastic  and  pedagogical  functions  of  the  board. 
In  nearly  all  cases  teachers  in  the  secondary  schools 
(in  fact,  nearly  all  teachers)  are  state  oflficials,  receive 
their  appointments  from  the  state,  and  are  amen- 
able to  central  authority  only.  To  be  sure,  the  local 
commissions  have  a  voice  relating  to  teachers,  but  it 
is  only  advisory  at  most.  As  well  as  teachers,  nearly 
all  the  managing  ofilcers  of  the  schools  are  appointed 
by  central  authority.  Thus  the  state  is  thoroughly 
paternalistic  in  the  management  of  its  secondary 
school  system..  It  may  oblige  a  community  to  main- 
tain a  secondary  school,  and  the  community  may  do 
so  independently  only  by  permission,  and  in  this  case 
the  state  provides  that  only  centrally  authorized 
teachers  may  instruct.  In  most  instances  the  Gov- 
ernment appoints  the  instructional  force,*  grants, 
particular  titles  to  the  teachers,  arranges  the  courses 
of  study,  approves  the  buildings,  etc.  This  insures  a 
thoroughly  and  uniformly  prepared  teaching  force 


*  Tliat  is,  tlie  confirmation  of  all  appointments  rests  with 
the  Ministerium. 


N 


ORGANIZATION   AND   MANAGEMENT.  29 

and  provides  against  remiss  methods  of  school  man- 
agement. Tlie  state  stipulates  the  salaries  that  shall 
be  paid  to  teacliers,  either  by  direct  tariffs  or  by 
granting  to  certain  cities  the  privilege  of  fixing  their 
own  rates,  thus  insuring  as  good  talent  for  the  smaller 
schools  as  for  the  larger.  This  was  found  necessary 
after  some  degeneration  of  the  smaller  schools,  be- 
cause of  the  best  teachers  flocking  to  the  cities  where 
larger  salaries  were  paid. 

17.  Stimuli  to  Secondary  Education. 
There  are  several  powerful  stimuli  which  exert 
a  strong  influence  in  keeping  boys  in  school  longer 
than  their  inclinations  might  otherwise  lead  them 
to  remain.  These  stimuli  lie  chiefly  in  the  social 
prestige,  enhanced  business  opportunities,  advantage 
for  future  scientific  investigation,  and  exemption 
from  military  service  coming  through  the  completion 
of  regular  school  courses.  In  the  first  place,  one's 
social  standing  in  Germany,  outside  the  nobility,  de- 
pends almost  wholly  upon  the  evidences  of  one's 
scholastic  attainments.  The  boys  who  receive  only 
the  elements  of  education,  such  as  are  afforded  by 
attendance  at  the  people's  schools,  are  almost  with- 
out exception  forever  doomed  to  intercourse  with 
only  the  working  classes,  no  matter  what  they  may 
have  accomplished  by  themselves.  Standing  in 
society  is  determined  more  by  the  school  certificate 
than  by  actual  qualifications.  Germany  is  pre- 
eminently a  land  Avhere  one's  word  and  address 
must  be  backed  by  legally  executed  vouchers.  This 
is  no  less  true  in  the  active  walks  of  business  life 


30     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

tlian  in  social  circles.  Xot  even  a  butcher's  boy, 
a  printer's  apprentice,  or  a  servant  can  find  employ- 
ment without  written  evidence  of  attainments  and 
former  good  conduct.  What  is  true  in  the  lower 
walks  of  life  is  no  less  true,  but  even  exaggerated, 
in  the  higher.  AYith  these  safeguards  against  im- 
postors and  the  incompetent  it  necessarily  follows 
that  all  certificates  of  attainments  are  honoured  at 
their  highest  possible  value.  A  given  diploma,  cer- 
tificate, or  "  Berechtigung  "  is  a  guarantee  of  recogni- 
tion in  every  particular  assumed  in  it.  The  phrase 
"  self-made  "  man  is  still  placed  in  quotation  marks 
by  the  Germans.  The  entity  corresponding  to  it  is 
not  indigenous  to  their  soil,  and  is  almost  incompre- 
hensible to  them.  To  them,  accomplishments  are 
only  possible  through  prolonged  and  careful  disci- 
pline secured  under  authorized  masters.  Giermany 
is  pre-eminently  the  land  of  long  apprenticeships, 
where  genius  is  allowed  to  blossom  only  after  long 
processes  of  cultivation.  Hence,  when  a  given  call- 
ing is  looked  forward  to  by  a  youth  or  by  his 
parents  for  him,  the  only  possibility  of  realizing 
those  hopes  is  through  conformity  to  the  regular 
courses  leading  up  to  that  end.  To  deviate  means 
certain  failure,  to  persevere  means  almost  certain 
success. 

Again,  the  various  forms  of  certificates  of  attend- 
ance at  school  give  corresponding  rights  to  pursue 
study  in  higher  institutions  of  learning.  Without 
formal  preliminary  training  it  is  assumed  that  no  one 
can  become  fitted  for  advanced  study.  Attainments 
acquired  by  private  study  are  not  recognised  as  ade- 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  31 

quate  preparation  for  study  in  higher  institutions. 
They  usually  even  deny  one  an  examination  to  dem- 
onstrate that  he  is  capable  of  carrying  on  chosen 
work  in  the  higher  schools.  Students  who  have  not 
had  regular  gymnasial  courses  sometimes  take  Just 
the  last  year  of  the  course  and  then  take  the  leav- 
ing examinations.  On  rare  occasions  they  are  as- 
signed by  the  provincial  school-board  to  some  gym- 
nasium to  take  the  examination  for  the  diploma, 
without  taking  the  work  in  Prima.  A  specific  prep- 
aration is  deemed  necessary  for  each  branch  of  busi- 
ness and  for  each  course  of  higher  study,  and  hence, 
if  one  has  aspirations  in  a  given  direction,  the  way 
of  attainment  is  plainly  marked  out.  For  example, 
a  post-office  official  must  secure  a  certificate  of  at 
least  six  years  of  successful  study  in  a  secondary 
school ;  a  special  student  of  mathematics  in  a  uni- 
versity must  secure  a  certificate  of  at  least  nine  years 
of  study.  This  may  or  may  not  have  included  Latin 
or  Greek,  there  being  some  latitude  allowed  in  this 
direction ;  but  a  student  of  theology,  law,  medicine, 
or  philosophy  can  never  hope  to  listen  to  the  masters 
without  securing  evidence  of  the  requisite  amount 
of  classical  instruction.  All  may  reap  as  they  choose 
to  sow. 

In  the  fourth  place,  perhaps  one  of  the  most 
potent  factors  inducing  higher  training  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools  is  the  exemption  from  two  of  the 
three  years  of  compulsory  military  duty,  to  which  all 
adult  male  citizens  of  Germany  are  subject.  To  se- 
cure this  reduction  of  time  is  an  escape  from  a  heavy 
burden,  and  is  considered  a  great  honour  as  well ;  and 


32     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM!  OP  GERMANY. 

parents  exert  themselves  to  the  utmost  to  allow  their 
sons  to  share  it.  Furthermore,  it  adds  two  years  to 
their  period  of  active  husiness  life  or  study,  Avhich 
is  a  most  important  consideration.  j^Po  be  obliged  to 
serve  three  years  in  tlie  army  during  the  best  years 
of  young  manliood  is  a  hardship  which  all  gladly 
avoid.  But  perhaps  more  potent  than  the  exemption 
from  the  two  years'  onerous  service  is  the  distinction 
which  comes  from  being  known  as  having  wealth 
enough  to  attend  school  nine  or  ten  years  and  to 
pay  the  necessary  expenses  connected  with  the  vol- 
unteer service,  for  every  volunteer  must  provide  his 
own  uniform,  accoutrements,  and  board.  Again,  he 
stands  a  chance  for  promotion,  which  ordinary  con- 
scripts do  not  enjoy. 

Below  are  enumerated  in  detail  the  privileges 
conferred  by  a  certificate  received  on  completion  of 
the  entire  courses  and  for  definite  portions  of  the 
various  courses  in  the  several  classes  of  schools  in 
Prussia.  The  other  states  allow  such  similar  privi- 
leges that  they  need  not  be  given  in  detail ;  only 
important  deviations  are  noted.  From  a  detailed 
examination  of  what  follows  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
school  certificates  are  not  only  evidences  of  scholar- 
ship, but  that  they  have  a  definite  professional  value, 
being  legal  certificates  of  entry  into  the  profes- 
sions, the  various  grades  admitting  to  different 
kinds  of  employment,  from  Government  service  to 
pharmacy;  and  it  is  most  important  to  remember 
that,  conversely,  it  is  unusual  to  gain  entry  into  the 
various  callings  of  life  by  other  than  the  prescribed 
routes. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  33 

I.    STATE   RECOGNITION  FOR  COMPLETION  OF 
FULL   SCHOOL   COURSE. 

A.  Gymnasia. — The  certificate  gives  the  right : 

1.  To  study  in  the  university  in  any  department, 
and  to  take  the  examinations  for  the  higher  church 
and  state  positions.  (These  include  teaching,  law, 
telegraph,  postal,  and  marine  service,  etc.) 

2.  To  study  in  the  building  and  mechanical  de- 
partments of  the  royal  technical  high  schools,  and  in 
the  mining  and  metallurgical  schools. 

3.  To  study  in  the  royal  agricultural  academy, 
and  to  become  a  candidate  for  teaching  in  the  same. 

4.  To  enter  the  royal  academy  of  church  music 
for  the  purpose  of  receiving  instruction  as  organist, 
chorister,  or  music  teacher  in  higher  teaching  posi- 
tions, 

5.  To  entrance  as  apprentice  for  higher  postal 
and  telegraph  service,  and  to  an  examination  for  jDosi- 
tion  as  manager  or  overseer  of  higher  positions  from 
secretary  on. 

B.  Real-Gymnasia. — 1.  Tlie  certificate  admits 
pupils  to  the  university  in  the  philosophical  faculty 
(excluding  from  law,  medicine,  and  theology)  to 
study  mathematics,  natural  sciences,  and  modern 
languages. 

2.  And  to  all  other  privileges  granted  by  the 
gymnasial  certificate. 

C.  Higher  Real-ScJiools. —  The  certificate  is  recog- 
nised as  indicative  of  extended  instruction  and  ad- 
mits : 

1.  To   the   study   of    mathematics   and   natural 


34     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

sciences  in  the  university,  and  to  tlie  examinations 
for  higher  school  positions  in  these  branches. 

2.  Possessors  of  this  certificate  are  entitled  to 
examination  for  positions  in  shipbuilding  and  the 
machinery  departments  of  the  royal  navy. 

3.  To  all  other  privileges  mentioned  in  A  and  B, 
except  to  study  in  the  royal  academy  of  music,  and 
for  positions  of  teacher  of  music  in  high  schools. 

4.  To  a  chance  to  take  supplementary  Latin  in  a 
real-gymnasium,  or  Latin  and  Greek  in  a  humanistic 
gymnasium,  and  then  to  receive  corresponding  privi- 
leges. 

D.  Higher  Burgher  Schools  or  Real-Schools  (ho- 
here  Burgerscliuleii)  {courses  six  or  seven  years). — 

i.  To  all  branches  of  the  subaltern  service,  for 
which  a  seven-years'  course  is  demanded,  also  for 
civil  supcrnumerariat  in  the  royal  railway  service,  the 
royal  provincial  and  local  district  boards  of  manage- 
ment, mining  and  metallurgical  works  (office  work), 
and  in  recording  or  registering  offices. 

2.  To  supernumerary  positions  in  the  internal 
revenue  offices. 

3.  To  examination  for  position  as  surveyor.  (In 
this  and  (2)  evidence  of  training  in  a  technical 
school  must  be  given.) 

4.  To  study  in  the  royal  agricultural  high  school. 

5.  To  study  in  the  Eoyal  Academy  of  Art  in  Ber- 
lin, and  to  examination  for  position  of  drawing 
teacher  in  high  schools. 

6.  To  study  in  the  Eoyal  High  School  for  Music 
in  Berlin. 

7.  To  enter  service  in  the  national  banks. 


ORGANIZATION  AND   MANAGEMENT.  35 

8.  To  enter  the  second  class  in  an  industrial 
school  {GewerbescJmle). 

9.  To  enter  the  Horticultural  School  in  Potsdam 
(provided  evidence  of  Latin  is  given). 

10.  To  take  an  apothecary's  examination,  if  the 
certificate  is  accompanied  by  evidence  of  Latin 
equivalent  to  Upper  Secunda  *  in  a  real-gymnasium. 

II.   STATE   RECOGNITION   FOR  COMPLETION  OF 
PARTIAL   COURSES. 

(a)   Civil  Service. 

The  certificate  of  one  year's  attendance  in  Prima 
in  a  gymnasium,  real  gymnasium,  or  higher  real- 
school  entitles  the  holder  to  (1)  positions  in  the  in- 
ternal revenue  service  ;  (2)  to  higher  positions  in  the 
telegraph  service. 

The  certificate  of  fitness  to  enter  Prima  in  any  of 
the  secondary  schools  entitles  the  holder  to  study  as 
a  veterinary  surgeon  or  as  a  dentist,  to  examination 
for  positions  in  the  clerical  departments  of  various 
governmental  bureaus  connected  with  mining  indus- 
tries, surveying,  etc.  The  certificate  of  fitness  to 
enter  Lower  Secunda  gives  the  privilege  to  enter  sev- 
eral subordinate  positions  in  the  same  lines  of  service 
mentioned  above,  while  a  certificate  for  Tertia  gives 
privilege  to  enter  still  other  subordinate  positions. 

*The  grades  or  cLasses  in  the  secondary  schools  are  named 
as  follows :  Sexta,  Quinta,  Quarta,  Lower  Tertia,  Upper  Tertia, 
Lower  Secunda,  Upper  Secunda,  Lower  Prima,  Upper  Prima. 
Sexta  is  the  lowest  class  and  Upper  Prima  the  highest.  In  the 
tables  they  are  designated  as  VI,  V,  IV,  L.  Ill,  U.  Ill,  L.  II, 
U.  II,  L.  I,  U.  I. 


3G  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY., 

(b)  Military  Service. 
Tlie  privilege  to  be  obtained  by  a  certain  amount 
of  scholarship  which  will  give  immunity  from  a  por- 
tion of  the  three  years'  military  service  is  among 
the  most  enticing.  To  secure  this  immunity  it  is 
necessary  to  possess  (1)  a  full-course  certificate  from 
a  gymnasium,  real-gymnasium,  or  a  higher  real- 
school,  or  (2)  a  certificate  of  the  successful  comple- 
tion of  the  work  in  Lower  Secunda  of  any  of  the  above 
schools,  or  (3)  a  certificate  indicating  that  the  can- 
didate has  comisleted  the  course  in  a  real-school, 
higher  burgher  school,  progymnasium,  or  a  rcal-pro- 
gymnasium.  That  is,  those  schools  with  six-year  or 
seven-year  courses  are  recognised  as  equivalent  to  the 
first  six  years  of  the  courses  in  the  corresponding 
institution  with  a  nine-years'  course.  If  the  school 
has  a  seven-years'  course  its  completion  gives  the 
same  commercial  value  as  the  completion  of  Upper 
Secunda  in  the  higher  schools.  A  certificate  of  com- 
pletion from  one  of  these  lower  schools  admits  to 
Upper  Secunda  in  one  of  the  corresponding  higher 
schools.  To  indicate  what  an  exceedingly  strong  in- 
centive this  last  factor  appears  to  be  I  apjjend  the  fol- 
lowing statistics  from  Prussia  for  the  year  1889-90:* 

Total  number  of  pupils  in  secondary  schools. .   135,337 
Number  that  left  school 20.038 

(a)  With  the  graduation  certificate 4,105 

(b)  With  certificate  entitling  to  one  year's 

military  service 8,051 

(c)  Without  even  reaching  this  point ....       7,883 

*  Lehrplane  und  Lehraufgaben  fiir  die   hoheren  Schulen, 
Preussen. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  37 

That  is,  from  all  the  secondary  schools  only  about 
25  per  cent,  of  those  who  left  them  had  completed 
the  nine-year  courses ;  40.3  per  cent,  left  after  secur- 
ing the  privilege  of  two  years  less  military  service  ; 
and  only  39.3  per  cent,  abandoned  study  without  se- 
curing any  definite  privileges.* 

8.  Distribution  of  Pupils  by  Grades 
AND  Ages. 

The  two  following  tables  indicate  the  distribution 
of  pupils  in  the  various  classes  or  grades.  The  first 
gives  the  percentages  in  all  the  secondary  schools 
having  nine-year  courses ;  the  second  gives  the  num- 
bers in  each  of  the  classes  in  each  form  of  school 
separately.  Ten  of  the  principal  states  are  given  in 
detail  and  the  rest  of  Germany  as  a  whole.  The 
principal  points  to  be  noted  are  the  exceeding  uni- 
formity of  attendance  up  to  Lower  Secunda  and  the 
rapid  decrease  before  entering  the  next  higher  class. 
The  tables  are  compiled  from  statistics  furnished  by 
Eethwisch  in  Deutschlands  hoheres  Schulwesen  im 
19.  Jahrhundert. 

*  "  Hierdurch  ist  dann  jetzt  das  sogenannte '  Frei  willigrecht ' 
gewissermassen  der  Angelpunkt  geworden,  um  den  sieh  der 
ganze  Aufbau  des  hoheren  U^ntevriehtswesen  in  Preiissen  gegen- 
■wartig  dreht:  ob  zum  Niitzen  oder  zum  Schaden  der  wahren 
Bildung,  kann  mir  die  Zukunft  entscheiden  ....  Im  mittel- 
punkte  des  ganzen  Frage  steht  die  Berechtiguiig  zum  eiiijiihrig- 
freiwilligen  Hcerdienst.  Sie  hat  cine  kleine  Geschiciite  fur 
sich"  (Baumeister's  Ilandhucli  der  Erziehinig,  i,  p.  6:J). 


38     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


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40     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

9.   Some  General  Features  of  the  Inner 
Organization  of  Secondary  Schools. 

(Each  school  ordiiiiirily  lias  from  twenty  to  thirty 
tractors,  including  the  director.  lie  usually  lives 
in  the  building.  In  fact,  nearly  all  elementary  as 
well  as  secondary  schools  provide  the  residence,  or 
WoJniu)/(/,  of  the  director.  He  thus  has  continuous 
oversight  over  the  school,  as  he  Avould  have  over  his 
own  dwelling.  The  director  is  usually  a  man  well 
advanced  m  years.  Tiie  majority  of  his  associates 
are  also  men  whose  heads  have  been  whitened  by 
the  frosts  of  many  winters.  There  is  ordinarily 
only  a  sprinkling  of  young  men  among  the  faculty. 
These  are  frequently  young  men  who  have  just  suc- 
ceeded in  earning  their  doctor's  degree  from  the 
university.  Promotions  are  slow  and.  changes  very 
infrequent,  as  I  have  elsewhere  pointed  out ;  hence 
the  personnel  of  the  faculty  remains  very  constant 
from  year  to  year.  The  majority,  perhaps,  never 
teach  in  more  than  one  school  during  their  lives ; 
thus  their  particular  school  becomes  thoroughly 
known  to  them.  Since  boys  not  uncommonly  at- 
tend the  same  school  continuously  during  the  nine 
years'  course,  the  teachers  and  pupils  are  as  well 
known  to  each  other  as  members  of  a  family.  When 
the  schools  are  large  there  are  two  divisions  for 
each  grade.  Forty  is  the  maximum  number  allowed 
in  a  room.  The  system  followed  may  be  termed 
the  class  system  in  the  lower  grades  and  the  de- 
partment system  in  the  higher  grades.  The  rea- 
sons are  obvious.     The  large  buildings  are  divided 


ORGANIZATION  AND   MANAGEMENT.  41 

into  class  rooms,  where  each  class  does  all  of  its  recita- 
tion work,  except  such  as  requires  special  demon- 
stration rooms.  The  studying,  however,  is  all  done 
at  home,  if  lessons  are  to  be  prepared.  Much  of 
the  ordinary  preparation  that  we  are  accustomed  to 
assign  in  American  schools  is  dispensed  with,  the 
class  work  taking  the  place  of  it.  The  teacher  plays 
a  much  more  important  role  than  books.  Ordinarily 
instruction  is  imparted  orally  by  the  teacher.  Les- 
sons are  not  assigned  from  text-books  so  much  as  in 
American  schools,  but  pupils  are  held  to  recite  upon 
the  work  that  has  been  explained  by  the  teacher. 
This  oral  instruction  given  by  the  teacher  is  the 
main  source  of  information.  This  results  in  pro- 
ducing good  listeners.  By  the  time  pupils  reach 
the  university  they  have  developed  a  good  power  of 
attention  in  listening  to  lectures,  i  "  But  the  advan- 
tage is  not  wholly  on  the  side  of  tile  Germans.  Our 
boys  have  greater  power  in  getting  usable  informa- 
tion from  books."  * 

The  discipline  in  the  schools  is  always  excellent. 
It  is  not  entirely  duo  to  the  authority  exerted  over 
the  pupils  while  in  the  schoolroom.  It  is  a  national 
characteristic  for  subordinates  to  implicitly  obey 
their  superiors.  Cases  of  severe  punishment  are  not 
numerous.  Pupils  obey  as  a  matter  of  course. 
Whenever  the  teacher  or  a  visitor  enters  the  room 
the  pupils  all  rise  and  stand  respectfully  until  the 
the  incomer  is  seated,  or  until  they  are  signalled  to 
be  seated. 

*  E.  J.  Goodwin.  Impressions  of  Prussian  Schools.  Edu- 
cational Review,  xii,  4G3. 


42     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Among  the  punishments  spoken  of  in  the  legal 
regulations  are  extra  home  work,  deprivation  of  posts 
of  honour  or  of  particular  places  in  the  class,  public 
or  private  rej)roval,  arrest  and  imprisonment  in  the 
"  Karzer  "  or  school  prison,*  withdrawal  of  stipends, 
solitary  recitations,  and  expulsion.  Most  of  these 
may  be  inflicted  by  the  director,  the  severe  ones  only 
by  the  faculty  in  council,  and  expulsion  may  follow 
only  after  the  verdict  of  the  local  school  commis- 
sion^ 

^^Notwithstanding  the  thorough  scholastic  train- 
ing of  the  teachers,  there  appears  to  me  to  be  some- 
thing pedantic  about  the  German  schoolmaster.  He 
does  not  appear  to  have  flexibility  of  method ;  there 
is  too  much  according  to  one  fixed  rule.  Through- 
out there  seems  to  be  too  little  of  what  we  Americans 
are  pleased  to  term  "practical  insight."  The  Ger- 
mans think  us  too  practical  and  not  scientific. 

The  schoolrooms  all  have  the  high  platforms  for 
the  teacher.  Upon  this  there  is  a  standard  type  of 
desk,  behind  which  the  teacher  remains  almost  inva- 
riably. He  does  not  get  down  among  his  boys, 
"  touch  elbows  with  them,"  and  work  with  them. 
He  is  literally  and  figuratively  above  them.  In  all 
my  visits  I  never  but  once  heard  a  pupil  ask  a  single 
question.  The  questioning  attitude  we  deem  most 
important,  but  in  Germany  pupils  "  speak  Avhen 
spoken  to,"  and  seldom  otherwise.  The  discipline 
is  most  perfect  from  a  soldierly  point  of  view. 
Teachers   seem    to    make    little  effort  to  maintain 

*  This  is  a  common  university  punishment. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  43 

discipline,  though  on  occasion  they  are  very  severe, 
and  sarcasm  and  words  of  reproof  are  frequent. 
From  the  German  ideal  of  education,  their  system 
must  be  admitted  to  be  most  perfect. 

They  have  an  aim  in  view,  standing  out  clear  and 
distinct,  and  by  faithfulness  and  unswerving  perse- 
verance they  approach  their  ideals  as  perhaps  no 
other  nation  does.  They  certainly  "  correlate  the 
pupils  with  the  time  and  place  in  which  they  live."^^^,,,^ 

As  a  rule,  the  school  buildings  are  dreary,  mmC^ 
tractive-looking  structures.  They  present  to  the  eye 
a  square,  unpleasing  appearance.  While  in  the 
United  States  the  school  buildings  generally  are  the 
most  elaborate  buildings  in  the  towns  and  villages, 
in  Germany  they  bear  no  comparison  with  the  court- 
houses and  other  public  edifices.  Usually  the  brick- 
work is  entirely  jDlastered  over  on  the  outside  in  the 
prevailing  style  of  the  country,  giving  a  most  mo- 
notonous appearance.  Almost  invariably  they  are 
poorly  lighted  and  poorly  ventilated.  It  is  a  com- 
mon remark  among  Americans  that  Germans  have 
no  idea  what  good  ventilation  is.  Too  frequently 
the  windows  are  so  covered  with  exhaled  moisture 
that  one  can  scarcely  see  out  of  doors.  Day  after 
day  I  have  sat  in  the  lecture  room  of  one  of  the  most 
renowned  German  physiologists  and  watched  the 
windows  gradually  coat  over,  as  the  lecture  pro- 
gressed, with  exhalations  from  the  breath  of  the 
auditors.  At  the  close  of  the  lecture  the  glass  would 
be  only  translucent,  not  transparent.  And  the  pro- 
fessor continued  to  theorize. 

Defective  eyesight  is  well  known  to  be  exceed- 


44     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

ingly  prevalent  among  students  in  secondary  schools 
and  universities.*  This  the  Germans  attribute  in 
part  to  the  use  of  black  slates  and  of  German  print. 
There  is  much  justice  in  the  last  assertion ;  but  it 
is  my  firm  belief  that  much  more  is  due  to  the 
effects  of  illy  lighted  rooms  (schoolrooms  and  homes), 
in  which  they  are  obliged  to  do  all  their  studying. 
Especially  in  Avinter,  when  a  light  is  necessary  until 
nine  in  the  morning  and  as  early  as  half-past  three 
in  the  afternoon,  the  rooms  are  exceedingly  dim.f 
Very  low  intensities  of  light,  less  than  from  three 
to  ten  candle  power,  are  sources  of  even  greater 
fatigue  than  small  type,  and  one  hundred  candle 
power  may  be  considered  a  very  safe  limit.  Yet 
the  illumination  in  German  schoolrooms  has  been 
found  frequently  less  than  two  candle  power.  J 

Most  of  the  school  furniture  is  of  the  crudest  sort. 
"  I  am  afraid  that  if  American  boys,  who  are  used  to 
luxurious  patent  desks  and  seats,  were  asked  to  sit 
for  a  term  on  a  German  school  seat,  they  would  make 
strong  objections.  The  seats  are  hand-made  and 
somewhat  similar  to  those  some  of  us  used  to  sit 
on  in  the  country  schools  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago. 
However,  in  all  my  country-school  experiences  I 
never  sat  on  any  so  awkward-looking  or  uncomfort- 
able.    A  straight,  upright  board,  about  eight  inches 

*  See  later  on, Emperor  William's  speech  at  the  "  December 
Conference." 

f  Cf.  Dr.  Klemm's  article  in  Bureau  of  Education  Reports, 
1891-'93. 

X  Griffing  and  Franz.  Conditions  of  Fatigue  in  .Reading. 
Psychological  Review,  vol.  iii,  p.  530. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  45 

wide,  forms  the  back  of  the  seat.  The  desks  are, 
however,  made  for  two.  (In  Prussia  they  are  com- 
monly long  affairs,  accommodating  (?)  four  or  five. 
When  the  middle  boy  leaves  his  seat  the  end  boys 
have  to  get  up  too.)  The  desks  and  seats  are  made 
together,  and  heavy  enough  not  to  need  fastening  to 
the  floor.  A  piece  of  timber,  from  three  to  four 
inches  high,  forms  the  base,  and  over  this  the  pupils 
must  step  every  time  they  get  in  or  out  of  the  seats 
or  stand  up  to  recite,  for  neither  the  desks  nor  seats 
are  hinged.  Frequently  the  recitation  benches  are 
backless.  When  we  consider  that  recitations  are 
from  forty-five  to  fifty-five  minutes  long,  it  seems 
heroic  treatment  to  subject  small  boys  to,  or  even 
larger  ones."  * 

There  appears  to  be  a  great  lack  of  the  modern 
schoolroom  appliances  so  common  in  America.  I 
have  reference  here  to  appliances  which  contribute 
to  comfort,  and  such  as  are  mechanically  easily  ad- 
justed, etc.  Their  maps,  charts,  models,  "  Anschau- 
ungs  "  material,  etc.,  are  usually  very  good  and  often 
excellent,  but  all  lack  that  quality  which  we  should 
term  "handiness."  Maps  are  usually  of  excellent 
print  and  of  harmonious  colours,  but  the  arrange- 
ments for  handling  are  very  primitive — no  patent 
rollers  that  will  enable  one  to  exhibit  or  remove  a 
map  in  a  twinkling,  but  rather  hung  on  a  nail  by  a 
string,  or  held  in  the  hand.  Of  the  variety  of  ap- 
pliances and  illustrative  material  used  in  construc- 

*  This  paragraph  first  appeared  in  the  Wisconsin  Journal 
of  Education,  June,  1897.     See  Schools  in  Germany. 


46     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

tion  I  shall  speak  later  on  in  connection  with  a  con- 
sideration of  each  of  the  snhjects. 

Blackboards  of  proper  size  are  unknown.  The 
largest  I  saw  were  not  more  than  four  feet  by  eight 
feet  in  size.  They  are  all  of  the  same  style,  being 
suspended  on  a  ponderous  wooden  frame,  or  else 
placed  on  a  sort  of  easel.  The  blackboard  is  not 
used  as  a  means  of  exhibiting  pupils'  work  in  recita- 
tion. It  is  used  solely  by  the  instructor.  Pictures 
and  statuary  are  not  so  abundant  on  the  walls  as  one 
would  expect  in  a  country  where  art  has  attained 
sucWiigh  rank. 

^^^f^chools  are  in  session  six  days  of  the  week  and 
'from  forty  to  forty-two  weeks  of  the  year.  Since  each 
pupil  has  from  thirty  to  thirty-three  hour  lessons  a 
week,  or  from  five  to  five  and  a  half  lessons  a  day, 
the  boy's  time,  when  his  home  school  work  is  reck- 
oned in,  may  be  said  to  be  pretty  fully  occupied. 
The  sessions  begin  at  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning 
during  the  summer,  and  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  win- 
ter. Not  long  since  the  times  were  respectively  six 
o'clock  and  seven  o'clock.  American  boys  would 
think  this  rather  heroic  treatment.  yThe  vacations  are 
as  follows,  varying  only  slightly  i'n  different  states : 

1.  Easter,  two  weeks.  (The  school  year  begins 
after  the  Easter  vacation.) 

2.  Pfingsten  (  Whitsuntide)^  from  five  days  to  one 
week. 

3.  Summer,  about  four  week's.  Prussia,  July  1st 
to  August  1st ;  Saxony,  begins  third  Saturday  in 
July ;  Bavaria,  eight  weeks,  July  14th  to  September 
10th  ;  Baden,  Bremen,  Berlin,  each  five  weeks. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  47 

4.  Michaelmas,  about  two  weeks. 

5.  Christmas,  usually  two  weeks. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  German  children  are  in 
school  many  more  hours  during  a  year  than  our  own 
pupils.  The  number  of  weeks  in  the  school  year  is 
greater  than  in  most  sections  of  the  United  States. 
The  question  naturally  arises :  Can  we,  -wath  advan- 
tage, lengthen  our  school  year  and  the  number  of 
weekly  hours  in  our  own  schools  ?  I  think  where 
our  high-school  pupils  have  eighteen  or  twenty  reci- 
tations weekly,  together  with  all  the  outside  work 
that  necessarily  accompanies  proper  preparation, 
that  they  are  suflBciently  taxed.  I  would  discourage 
lengthened  school  years  also.  Here,  as  in  other  mat- 
ters of  school  management  (as  I  have  indicated  else- 
where), local  conditions  must  be  taken  into  consider- 
ation. For  example,  the  Germans  are  favoured  by 
climatic  conditions  promotive  of  more  regular  study, 
and  longer  school  years.  In  most  sections  of  the 
United  States,  the  climate  is  bracing  and  vigorous, 
and  conducive  to  vigorous  action,  mental  and  bodily, 
but  at  the  same  time  the  processes  of  disintegration 
and  waste  are  much  more  rapid.  If  the  German  boys 
accomplish  more  during  their  school  life  than  our  own 
boys,  we  must  place  as  one  of  the  explanatory  factors 
the  climatic  conditions  which  allow  their  physiolog- 
ical machinery  to  be  driven  harder.  I  am  not  sure 
that  American  boys  cannot  accomplish  as  much  in  the 
aggregate,  but  from  their  natures  and  the  conditions 
under  which  they  live,  they  will  work  more  actively 
and  vigorously  for  a  time,  and  then  they  require  a 
period  of  rest.     They  do  their  work  by  spurts,  as  it 


48     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


were,  the  German  boys  by  nnintermittent  plodding. 
In  this  connection  the  following  quotation  bears  me 
witness :  "  It  may  not  be  irrelevant  to  mention  the 
effect  of  our  American  climate  upon  the  health  of 
our  people.  The  more  rapid  and  greater  changes 
of  temperature  experienced  here  than  elsewhere,  and 
the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  as  compared  with 
that  in  other  civilized  countries,  gives  rise  to  more 
exposure  and  more  trying  hygienic  conditions.  The 
climatic  effects  of  our  country  are  at  once  noted  by 
foreigners  in  the  stimulus  and  general  exaltation  of 
feeling  which  are  produced,  but  the  vital  force  is 
too  rapidly  exhausted,  and  one  is  left  without  reserve 
powers  of  endurance."  * 

To  indicate  the  equability  of  climatic  conditions 
I  append  a  meteorological  report  for  Leipsic  during 
the  year  1896.  For  purposes  of  comparison  a  table 
is  also  given  showing  meteorological  summaries  for 
representative  American  cities. 


.January 

February  . , 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September  . 
October  . . . . 
November  . 
December . , 


Temperature, 


—  1.50  Centigrade. 

+    0.5° 

+    3.3° 

+    7.9° 

+  13.2° 

+  16. r° 

+  17.9° 

+  17.5° 

+  13.9° 

+    9.1° 

+    3.7° 

+    0.4° 


Barometer.         Precipitation. 


7.51.8  mm. 

751.6 

750.7 

750.4 

750.9 

751.6 

751.8 

751.8 

7.52.2 

751.4 

7.50.8 

7.52.2 


32  mm. 

33 

48 

39 

45 

72 

65 

65 

38 

44 

45 

40 


The  table  below  is  not  given  in  the  same  units 
as  that  for  Leipsic,  but  they  may  serve  as  well  for 
comparison  of  equability  of  climatic  factors. 

*  Health  Statistics  of  Women  College  Graduates,  p.  8. 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT. 


49 


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4.16 
2.82 
3.61 
3.52 
6.70 
1.36 
2.16 
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cococoinoi'i^t^coinioco 

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January 

February  . . 

March 

April 

Blay  

June 

July 

August 

September. 

October 

November. . 
December  . 

^ 
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50     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

The  average  temperature  at  Karlsruhe  for  Jan- 
uary was  0.1°  C.  and  in  July  19.5°  C.  In  Berlin  it 
was  —0.8°  C.  and  18.8°  C.  during  January  and  July 
respectively. 

• '  The  legal  school  age  is  from  six  to  fourteen,  dur- 
ing which  period  attendance  is  compulsory.  The 
compulsory  laws  are  not  dead  letters  either,  as  they 
are  in  so  many  of  our  States.  The  school  director 
gives  each  year  to  the  police  in  his  district  a  list  of 
pupils  of  school  age,  and  the  police  stand  ready  to 
co-operate  with  the  school  authorities  in  enforcing 
attendance.  Children  are  on  no  account  to  be  ex- 
cused except  in  case  of  illness.  When  a  child  is 
absent  from  school,  it  is  the  business  of  the  class 
teacher  to  ascertain  the  cause.  Should  the  pupil  be 
needlessly  absent,  the  case  is  reported  to  the  director, 
who  sends  the  Pedell  or  janitor  to  bring  the  pupil  to 
school.  If  the  servant  fails  to  convince  the  pupil  or 
his  parents,  the  police  are  notified,  and  it  is  needless 
to  say  that  matters  are  speedily  adjusted.  On  re- 
turning to  the  school  after  an  absence  each  pupil 
must  bring  a  satisfactory  excuse,  or  the  parents  must 
pay  the  prescribed  fine. 

During  the  period  of  compulsory  attendance 
pupils  may  attend  any  school  they  or  their  parents 
choose — public  or  private,  elementary  or  secondary 
— provided  only  that  the  school  meets  the  govern- 
ment requirements. 

In  addition  to  the  eight  years  of  compulsory  at- 
tendance each  pupil  must  attend  a  Fortbildungs- 
schule,  or  continuation  school,  two  hours  weekly 
for  two  years.     In  this  school  instruction  is  provided 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  51 

in  studies  of  a  practical  nature,  such  as  bookkeeping, 
business  arithmetic,  penmanship,  etc.  The  Fort- 
bildungsschule  course  is  not  necessary  if  the  boy 
continues  his  higher  studies^,^^ 

Every  city  has  a  school  physician  who  looks  after 
the  health  of  the  pupils  and  the  sanitary  conditions 
of  the  buildings,  grounds,  etc.  Particular  care  is 
exercised  to  prevent  the  spread  of  contagious  and 
infectious  diseases.  Pupils  must  all  have  certificates 
of  successful  vaccination  on  entering  school,  and  of 
revaccination  after  twelve  years  of  age.  Children 
suffering  from  any  contagious  disease  are  excluded 
from  school,  as  are  also  children  from  the  same  fam- 
ily if  they  are  liable  to  spread  the  disease. 

Although  all  buildings  are  constructed  according 
to  governmental  regulations,  yet  the  seating,  light- 
ing, and  heating  are  far  from  ideal.  School  play- 
grounds are  usually  very  inadequate.  The  small 
space  around  the  buildings  is  generally  given  up  to 
the  cultivation  of  flowers  or  to  plants  for  botanical 
purposes.  It  is  an  excellent  idea  to  have  these 
school  gardens  for  teaching  purposes,  but  it  is  a 
mistake  not  to  provide  ample  playground.  Money 
expended  for  school  playgrounds  is  money  well  in- 
vested. But  in  Germany,  room  for  sports,  games, 
and  free  play  is  deemed  unnecessary.  German 
boys  are  not  encouraged  to  enter  into  sports  like 
baseball,  football,  tennis,  etc.  The  stiff,  conven- 
tional, military  "  Turnen "  is  thought  to  be  suf- 
ficient. Some  features  of  this  sort  of  exercise  are 
excellent,  but  they  in  no  way  form  a  substitute  for 
free  play  and  well-regulated  games.     The  five  or  ten 


52     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

minute  "  pauses  "  between  class  exercises  are  passed 
in  slowly  promenading  around  the  school  grounds, 
and  at  the  same  time  munching  a  piece  of  black 
(rye)  bread.  Some  teacher  is  always  detailed  to  over- 
see the  play  ( ?  )  ground  during  these  intermissions. 
He,  also,  munches  his  Roggenbrod  as  he  keeps  his 
watchful  eye  over  his  flock.  (Even  university  stu- 
dents may  be  seen  munching  their  Roggenbrod  as 
they  promenade  the  corridors  between  lectures.) 
At  the  tap  of  a  bell  the  sauntering  flock  form  a  line 
in  a  column  of  twos  and  march  into  the  schoolrooms. 
Even  their  chance  of  getting  some  amusement  from 
looking  into  the  streets  is  purposely  hindered  by  the 
way  in  which  the  yard  fence  is  constructed.  The 
fences  are  usually  of  iron  palings,  but  just  at  the 
height  at  which  the  pupils  could  look  out  the  fence 
is  made  solid  by  a  strip  of  sheet  iron  about  two  feet 
wide. 

About  three  hours  a  week  are  given  to  regular  gym- 
nastic exercises.  This  consists  of  ordinary  indoor 
gymnasium  exercises,  with  occasionally  some  games. 
These  are  all  under  the  svipervision  of  a  Turnlehrer, 
or  teacher  of  gymnastics.  A  considerable  portion  of 
the  physical  exercises  consists  of  regular  military 
"  setting  up  "  exercises.  It  always  seemed  to  me 
when  watching  the  drills  as  though  much  better 
results  might  be  obtained  by  giving  pupils  a  chance 
for  free  exercises  and  games.  The  military  drills 
may  be  suited  to  training  men  as  soldiers,  but  seem 
scarcely  suitable  for  small  boys  and  girls.  Our  foot- 
ball, baseball,  tennis,  field-day  contests,  etc.,  would, 
I  am  confident,  give  more  animation  and  vigour  to 


ORGANIZATION  AND  MANAGEMENT.  53 

the  German  boys,  overburdened  as  they  are  by  long 
hours  of  mental  labour. 

The  number  of  hours  of  actual  class-room  work 
exacted  of  gymnasial  and  other  secondary-school  in- 
structors is  so  small  that  preparation  for  it  ought  to 
be  much  better  than  usually  is  possible  with  high- 
school  teachers.  I  find  from  an  examination  of 
many  gymnasial  programmes  that  the  average  num- 
ber of  hours  of  actual  class-room  work  required  of 
each  instructor  is  only  from  seventeen  to  eighteen 
hours  per  Aveek.  This  is  an  average  of  about  three 
hours  daily,  including  Saturday.  The  Prussian  regu- 
lations prescribe  from  twenty-two  to  twenty-four 
hours  weekly  for  professors  and  head  teachers,  while 
teachers  of  technical  subjects  and  elementary  teach- 
ers have  from  twenty-four  to  twenty-eight  hours.  In 
Saxony  the  director  of  a  gymnasium  need  not  teach 
more  than  four  hours  a  week,  while  a  real-school  di- 
rector need  not  teach  more  than  sixteen  hours. 
Other  teachers  have  from  twenty-four  to  twenty- 
eight  hours.  The  maximum  number  for  elemen- 
tary teachers  in  Wiirtemljerg  is  thirty  hours,  while 
the  directors  have  from  eight  to  ten.  Seldom  over- 
crowded with  class-room  work,  they  have  ample  time 
for  thorough  preparation.  This  is  a  feature  worthy 
of  more  consideration  in  America.  The  high-school 
teachers  who  have  from  five  to  seven  daily  recitations 
cannot  be  expected  to  do  as  good  work  as  when  a 
smaller  number  of  hours  is  required  in  the  class 
room.  Little  of  the  German  teacher's  time  is  need- 
ed for  discipline.  All  lessons  are  prepared  by  the 
pupils  at  home  or  in  class,  and  they  assemble  only 


54     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

for  the  class  recitation.  When  a  lesson  is  over, 
the  teacher  is  respectfully  bowed  out  by  the  class 
standing  at  attention.  He  goes  immediately  to  the 
large  teachers'  room,  which  is  found  in  every  secon- 
dary school.  There  he  may  read  current  pedagog- 
ical literature,  of  which  an  abundance  is  supplied, 
consult  the  ample  library,  or  prepare  his  next  lesson. 
This  relieves  him  of  much  of  the  strain  of  "  keep- 
ing order."  Then,  too,  the  inherent  and  constantly 
re-enforced  idea  of  implicit,  unquestioning  obedi- 
ence to  authority  is  so  strong  in  German  boys  that 
the  teacher  needs  to  expend  little  energy  in  main- 
taining discipline.*  All  these  facts  tend  to  lighten 
the  teacher's  burden,  and  to  leave  him  more  energy 
available  for  the  preparation  of  lessons,  for  vigor- 
ous instruction,  and  for  general  advancement. 

*  Some  one  has  wittily  said  that  in  Europe  '•  children  obey 
their  parents,  the  wife  obeys  her  husband,  the  husband  obeys 
the  king,  the  king  obeys  God." 


CHAPTER   IL 

teachers. 

1.  Examination  akd   Certification". 

The  teaching  force  employed  in  German  schools 
is  always  selected  with  great  care.  Xone  but  those 
thoroughly  qualified  by  scholarship  and  demon- 
strated teaching  cajDabilities  are  ever  employed  as 
regular  teachers.  The  high  standard  of  qualifi- 
cations of  teachers  is  a  Just  source  of  pride  to  Ger- 
many. The  difficulty  with  which  positions  are  se- 
cured insures  a  thoroughly  trained  body  of  teachers. 
Many  of  the  instructors  are  men  who  have  secured 
their  doctorate  from  the  university.  Without  ex- 
ception the  secondary  school  teachers  are  men,  and 
one  may  see  among  their  numbers  many  who  have 
grown  hoary-headed  in  the  service.  When  visiting 
schools,  it  was  with  some  degree  of  diffidence  that 
I  explained  to  the  teachers  that  I,  a  young  man,  had 
been  a  school  director  (principal)  in  America.  In 
Germany,  young  men  would  not  be  intrusted  with 
so  important  a  position ;  they  must  all  serve  a  long 
term  of  years  in  the  lower  ranks  before  aspiring  to 
become  directors  of  others.  Only  the  few  ever  at- 
tain this  coveted  position. 

In  university  cities  it  is  not  infrequent  to  find 
the  director  enrolled  as  professor  in  the  university 

Co 


56     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

faculty  as  lecturer  on  pedagogics.  Some  of  his  best 
assistants  may  also  be  private  docents  in  the  univer- 
sity. This  is  especially  true  where  a  pedagogical 
seminary  is  maintained  in  connection  with  the  uni- 
versity. Teachers  of  religion  are  frequently  min- 
isters or  candidates  for  the  ministry. 

University  diplomas  are  not  accepted  as  creden- 
tials for  teaching,  as  normal  school  and  university 
diplomas  so  commonly  are  in  America.  All  must 
take  the  state  examination,  regardless  of  their  previ- 
ous preparation.  Sometimes  the  doctorate  disserta- 
tion is  taken  as  a  part  of  the  written  work.  To  give 
a  more  definite  idea  of  the  preparation  required  of 
candidates,  a  few  notes  are  given  from  the  numerous 
regulations  (thirty  pages)  governing  the  certification 
of  teachers  in  Saxony.*  There  are  only  slight  varia- 
tions in  the  other  states  of  the  empire,  and  hence  the 
following  regulations  are  typical  of  the  whole  of  Ger- 
many. The  general  regulations  apply  to  candidates 
for  positions  in  any  of  the  public  secondary  schools, 
and  also  to  those  private  institutions  which  aim  to 
cover  the  same  ground  as  the  public  schools.  All 
candidates  must  be  residents  of  Saxony.  In  addition 
to  holding  a  full  course  certificate  from  one  of  the 
secondary  schools,  they  must  have  done  three  years' 
work  in  German  universities,  one  semester  of  which 
must  have  been  in  Leipsic,  unless  the  candidate  has 
been  engaged  in  some  public  service  in  Saxony,  f 
Special  deviations  from  this  may  be  granted  only  by 

*  Ordnung  der  Priifung  f iir  das  hohere  Schulamt. 
f  Similarly,  in  other  states  resident  study  in  one  of  their  own 
universities  is  required. 


TEACHERS.  57 

the  Minister  of  Education.  He  is  empowered  to  grant 
special  concessions  only  in  case  the  candidate  has 
spent  three  or  more  years  in  some  German  univer- 
sity. The  leaving  certificate  (Eeife  Zeugniss)  from 
a  gymnasium  is  required  of  all  candidates,  except 
those  who  wish  to  teach  mathematics,  modern  lan- 
guages, or  natural  science.  For  teachers  of  these 
subjects  the  certificate  from  a  real-gymnasium  or 
a  higher  real-scliool  serves  the  same  purpose.  Study 
of  modern  languages  abroad  may  be  accredited  for 
a  part  of  the  required  university  residence.  In  the 
United  States,  candidates  for  teaching  are  seldom 
asked  many  questions,  except  those  of  a  scholastic 
nature.  But  in  Germany  one's  entire  genealogy 
must  be  rehearsed  in  great  detail,  and  conclusive  evi- 
dence of  irreproachable  conduct  and  morality  must 
be  given.  Candidates  who  wish  permission  to  talce 
the  examinations  must  announce  themselves  some 
time  in  advance.  This  request  must  be  accompanied 
by  the  diploma  from  the  secondary  school,  the  Ab- 
gangszeugiiiss  (or  leaving  permit  from  the  univer- 
sity) and  the  Lebenslauf  (course  of  life),  including 
testimonials  from  the  mayor  of  their  town  or  their 
pastor.  They  must  state  their  complete  names,  date 
and  place  of  birth,  religion,  occupation  of  father,  give 
an  outline  of  their  school  training,  their  courses  of 
university  training,  state  their  preparation  for  teach- 
ing languages,  and  the  course  of  reading  already  pur- 
sued. If  the  candidate  has  been  an  assistant  in  a  uni- 
versity, or  a  member  of  a  seminary,  or  has  attended 
different  universities,  all  these  facts  should  be  stated. 
The  biography  is  to  be  written  in  Latin  by  candidates 


58     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

for  teaching  ancient  languages,  and  by  candidates 
for  teaching  modern  languages  in  one  of  those  lan- 
guages.    In  other  courses  it  is  accepted  in  German. 

The  aim  of  the  examination  itself  is  (1)  to  deter- 
mine the  candidate's  general  professional  fitness,  and 
(2)  to  determine  his  fitness  for  teaching  special 
branches.  The  first  qualifications  are  determined 
by  examinations  in  philosophy  and  pedagogy,  Ger- 
man language  and  literature,  and  religion.  The 
second  qualifications  are  tested  by  an  examination 
in  the  branches  selected  by  the  candidate  for  his 
chosen  line  of  work.  Three  grades  of  position  are 
recognised  in  the  secondary  schools,  and  each  grade 
has  its  corresponding  special  examinations.  The 
lowest  grade  of  work  includes  Sexta,  Quinta,  and 
Quarta ;  the  middle  grade  includes  the  next  three 
classes ;  and  the  highest  includes  the  last  three 
years  of  the  nine-year  courses.  For  positions  in 
Greek,  Latin,  physics,  chemistry,  and  mineralogy 
only  two  grades  are  given,  inasmuch  as  all  these 
branches,  except  Greek  and  Latin,  are  taught  only  in 
the  middle  and  higher  classes.  Latin  is  begun  in 
Sexta  and  Greek  in  Quarta,  but  for  these  basal 
studies  only  teachers  having  very  extended  special 
training  in  them  are  employed.  All  teachers  are  re- 
quired to  take  the  examination  in  philosophical  pro- 
paedeutics. Thus  only  those  with  professional  in- 
sight, as  well  as  specialized  knowledge,  may  give 
instruction  in  the  secondary  schools. 

Two  classes  or  grades  of  certificate  are  issued — 
those  for  the  grade  of  ordinary  teacher  {Lehre?')  and 
those  for  the  grade  of  head  teacher  ( Oberlehrer).     To 


TEACHEES.  59 

obtain  a  teacher's  certificate,  in  addition  to  the  gen- 
eral requirements,  the  examination  must  demonstrate 
capability  of  instructing  the  middle  classes  (L.  Ill, 
U.  Ill,  L.  II)  *  in  two  selected  major  subjects,  and 
in  the  lower  classes  (VI,  V,  IV)  in  two  correlated 
minors  selected  from  the  same  group  as  the  major. 

The  head  teacher's  ( Oberlchrer)  certificate  is  the 
highest,  and  in  order  to  obtain  it  the  candidate  must 
show  that  he  is  able  to  instruct  the  three  upper 
classes  (U.  II,  L.  I,  and  U.  I)  in  two  selected  majors 
and  the  three  middle  classes  in  two  closely  related 
minors.  In  place  of  the  two  minors  a  third  major 
for  the  upper  class  instruction  may  be  selected. 

Two  groups  of  subjects  are  recognised  from 
which  the  selections  are  to  be  made  :  {a)  the  lan- 
guage historical  group,  and  {li)  the  mathematical 
scientific  group.  The  subjects  coming  under  the 
groups  are  as  follows  : 


Group  "A." 

Group 

"B." 

German,      French, 

Mathematics, 

Mineralogy, 

Latin,          English, 

Physics, 

Botany, 

Greek,          History, 

Chemistry, 

Zoology. 

Geography. 

Philosophical  propaedeutics  is  a  required  subject 
for  all  candidates.  Should  Latin  be  chosen  as  one 
of  the  major  subjects,  geography  must  be  taken  as  a 
minor.  If  French  or  English  is  taken  as  major, 
Latin  must  be  a  minor.  Hebrew  may  be  taken  as  a 
major  only  by  candidates  for  an  instructorship  in 
religion. 

*  See  explanation  of  these  classifications  on  i^age  35. 
G 


CO     SECONDAllY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Tlie  examinations  are  conducted  by  two  methods 
— oral  and  written.  Tlie  written  examination  pre- 
cedes the  oral,  and  its  successful  completion  is  a  pre- 
requisite for  admission  to  the  oral.  The  written  ex- 
amination diii'ers  markedly  from  those  in  vogue  in 
the  United  States.  Instead  of  answering  a  fixed  set 
of  ten  or  more  questions,  an  "  Aufgabe,"  or  form  of 
thesis,  is  prescribed  for  each  of  the  subjects  or  for  a 
combination  of  allied  subjects.  Such  branches  as 
history  and  geography,  mathematics  and  physics,  or 
language  and  history  may  be  combined.  No  one  is 
to  be  given  more  than  three  written  dissertations  to 
prepare.  One  of  these  must  be  on  the  philosophical 
pedagogical  topic.  For  the  preparation  of  each 
paper  a  period  of  six  weeks  is  given.  By  special  per- 
mission more  time  may  be  given.  (I  understand 
that  a  second  six  weeks  is  usually  required.  Hence, 
to  prepare  three  dissertations,  about  a  year  may  be 
necessary.)  The  candidate  is  required  by  "  Hand- 
schlagen  "  (handshaking ;  equivalent  to  taking  oath) 
to  satisfy  the  committee  that  the  work  has  been  done 
independently.  All  aids  in  the  way  of  books  and 
periodicals  must  be  stated  in  thg  thesis.  In  classical 
philology  the  thesis  must  be  written  in  Latin ;  in 
modern  foreign  languages  it  must  be  written  in  the 
language  which  the  examination  represents  (French 
or  English).  Theses  in  other  subjects  are  written 
in  German. 

Following  the  acceptance  of  the  written  work, 
and  preceding  the  oral  examination,  a  trial  lesson  in 
the  major  subject  must  be  planned  and  presented  to  a 
class  in  presence  of  the  examining  committee.     This 


TEACHERS.  61 

trial  over  satisfactorily,  the  candidate  is  admitted  to 
the  final  ordeal.  The  length  of  the  test  varies  with 
the  position  sought.  It  occupies  an  hour  in  each  of 
the  branches  if  for  a  position  in  the  upper  classes, 
three  quarters  of  an  hour  for  the  middle  classes,  and 
half  an  hour  for  the  lower  classes. 

Something  of  the  scope  and  thoroughness  of  the 
examinations  may  be  judged  from  the  outline  of  the 
requirements  in  the  following  branches,  which  we 
will  pass  in  review  : 

In  philosophy  and  pedagogy  all  are  to  show  a 
knowledge  of  the  elements  of  logic  and  empirical 
psychology.  They  must  understand  the  most  im- 
portant cosmological  views,  the  general  trend  of  the 
history  of  philosophy,  and  must  have  read  at  least 
one  philosophical  treatise.  The  princiiales  of  peda- 
gogy and  didactics  must  be  familiar,  and  also  the 
most  important  facts  concerning  pedagogical  develop- 
ment since  the  sixteenth  century.  If  the  candidate 
is  to  instruct  in  philosophical  propedeutics,  he  must 
show  a  clear  insight  into  the  most  important  philo- 
sophical systems  and  be  able  to  give  a  clear,  con- 
nected discussion  of  philosophical  questions. 

The  examination  in  mathematics  includes  (1)  for 
the  lowest  class  certificate  a  knowledge  of  plane  and 
solid  geometry,  trigonometry,  universal  arithmetic 
including  logarithms,  algebra  including  linear,  quad- 
ratic and  diophantic  equations,  as  well  as  the  neces- 
sary acquaintance  with  the  properties  of  numbers 
sufficient  for  ordinary  arithmetical  calculations  (2) 
For  the  middle  class  there  is  required  a  knowledge 
of  the  elements  of  analytic  and  projective  geometry, 


G2     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

theory  of  algebraic  equations,  liigher  analysis,  and 
fundamentals  of  differential  and  integral  calculus. 
(3)  For  the  highest  class  the  candidate  must  under- 
stand so  thoroughly  the  important  parts  of  higher 
geometry,  higher  analysis,  and  univi-rsal  arithmetic 
that  he  can  work  out  independently  a  moderately  dif- 
ficult theme  in  any  of  these  lines. 

The  English  examination  includes  (1)  for  the 
middle  class  (it  not  being  taught  in  lower  classes)  an 
essentially  correct  translation  of  some  selection  of 
moderately  difficult  German  into  English,  as  the 
written  part  of  the  examination.  The  oral  examina- 
tion must  demonstrate  a  reasonably  sure  knowledge 
of  grammatical  rules  and  of  word  values  sufficient 
for  class  instruction.  Synonyms  must  be  fairly  well 
distinguished.  A  knowledge  of  the  development  of 
English  literature  must  be  shown,  and  some  standard 
works  of  English  authors  must  have  been  read  with 
understanding.  Essential  rules  of  versification  must 
be  known,  and  some  fluency  in  the  use  of  the  language 
must  be  possessed.  (2)  To  obtain  a  certificate  for 
upper  class  work,  both  oral  and  written  work  must 
exhibit  not  only  grammatical  correctness  but  easy 
control  of  expression.  Knowledge  of  grammar,  ety- 
mology, and  syntax  must  be  scientifically  understood. 
The  chief  facts  of  scientific  grammar  must  be  so  well 
mastered  that  grammatical  forms,  sounds,  and  etymo- 
logical development  of  modern  English  can  be  scien- 
tifically explained.  A  moderately  difficult  selection 
from  Anglo-Saxon  or  Old  English  must  be  translated 
and  explained.  Laws  of  versification  of  Old  English 
and  Modern  English  must  be  understood.     Finally,  a 


TEACHERS.  63 

correct  knowledge  of  the  development  of  all  English 
literature  must  be  demonstrated,  as  well  as  proof  of 
having  read  with  critical  understanding  some  works 
of  the  prominent  authors  since  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  requirements  in  French  are  so  similar  to 
those  in  English  that  they  may  be  omitted  from  this 
discussion. 

To  give  instruction  in  Latin  (1)  in  the  lower 
classes  there  is  demanded  exact  knowledge  of  elemen- 
tary grammar  and  ability  in  its  application.  The 
easier  prose  and  poetical  works,  as  Cesar's  Commen- 
taries, some  of  Cicero's  Orations,  and  Ovid's  Meta- 
morphoses, must  have  been  read  in  the  original. 
Selections  from  these  works  are  to  be  read  and  trans- 
lated in  the  examination.  This  part  of  the  work 
must  show  readiness  and  exactness  in  translation, 
understanding  of  versification,  syntactical  and  sen- 
tential structure,  and  correct  word  valuation.  (2)  In 
addition  to  this  there  must  be  for  the  middle  classes 
an  appreciation  of  the  difference  between  German 
and  Latin  modes  of  expression  and  the  capability  of 
handling  independently  certain  themes  relating  to 
classical  antiquity.  The  reading  includes  selections 
from  Ceesar,  Sallust,  difficult  portions  of  Livy,  Cicero, 
Vergil  (at  least  the  ^Eneid),  the  most  significant 
odes  and  satires  of  Horace,  and  the  elegies  of  Tibul- 
lus  and  Ovid. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Greek  instruction  be- 
gins in  Quarta,  and  hence  there  is  no  "  lower  class  " 
instruction  recognised.  For  the  middle  grade  the 
examination  includes  general  grammar,  knowledge  of 
Homeric  etymology,  and  also  the  difference  between 


64     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

Ionic  and  Attic  dialects.  The  written  translation  of 
moderately  easy  Latin  or  German  into  Greek  should 
be  done  with  facility.  The  reading  includes  Homer, 
Herodotus,  Xenophon's  Anabasis,  Memorabilia,  and 
Hellenica,  Orations  of  Lysias,  the  shorter  political 
speeches  of  Demosthenes,  Plato's  Apology,  and  the 
Crito. 

In  both  Latin  and  Greek  the  candidate  must  be 
so  familiar  with  the  authors  that  he  can  make  satis- 
factory critiques  of  the  contents  and  character  of 
what  he  reads.  Selected  passages  of  moderate  diffi- 
culty must  be  readily  and  exactly  translated,  the 
style  criticised,  synonyms  differentiated,  and  the  en- 
tire passages  clearly  explained.  The  laws  of  dactylic 
hexameter  and  pentameter  must  be  well  understood ; 
the  lives  and  works  of  the  given  authors  must  have 
been  carefully  studied ;  an  acquaintance  with  my- 
thology is  demanded  ;  and  an  acquaintance  with  aids 
and  means  of  studying  classical  literature,  history, 
and  mythology,  sufficient  for  independent  investiga- 
tion, must  be  demonstrated. 

To  instruct  in  the  higher  classes  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  philologic  criticism  is  required.  In  this  they 
are  expected  to  be  as  proficient  as  instructors  in  our 
colleges.  Xot  only  must  they  be  able  to  read  and 
translate,  but  they  must  be  acquainted  with  the 
sources  from  which  the  school  texts  are  compiled,  and 
be  able  to  give  critical  judgment  upon  the  texts. 
The  candidates  must  be  able  to  speak  and  write  Latin 
easily  and  correctly,  and  at  least  to  write  Greek  cor- 
rectly. A  completely  correlated  knowledge  of  the 
language,  literature,  history,  art,  mythology,  etc.,  of 


TEACHERS.  65 

the  Greeks  and  Eomans  is  demanded.  Besides  this, 
in  the  philosophical  examination  the  acquaintance 
with  Greek  and  Roman  philosophy  must  be  shown  to 
be  sufficient  to  explain  fully  the  authors  read  in  the 
gymnasium. 

AVithout  going  into  details  concerning  the  quali- 
fications required  for  teachers  of  the  mother  tongue 
it  will  suffice  to  say  that  no  mere  ability  to  recite 
grammatical  or  rhetorical  rules,  nor  a  simple  smatter- 
ing of  literature,  is  deemed  sufficient.  Xo  dilettan- 
teism  is  allowed.  Nothing  short  of  a  thoroughly 
critical  knowledge  of  the  linguistic  science  of  the 
language  and  the  ability  to  make  scholarly  literary 
criticism  will  be  accepted.  The  historical  develop- 
ment of  the  language  must  have  been  studied,  and 
also  that  of  the  languages  from  which  it  has  been 
derived.  Gothic,  Old  High  German,  and  Middle 
High  German  must  be  easily  read  and  understood, 
and  some  acquaintance  with  their  literature  must 
have  been  acquired. 

Ko  one  is  permitted  to  give  instruction  in  the 
upper  classes  if  the  work  in  German  and  the  oral 
examination  in  philosophy  indicate  that  general  sci- 
entific questions  cannot  be  discussed  with  philosoph- 
ical insight  and  in  a  lucid  manner. 

All  teachers  of  religion  must  show  thorough  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Scriptures  and  the  creeds  which 
they  represent,  biblical  history,  and  the  history  of 
the  Church.  For  the  upper  classes,  the  ability  to 
read  the  Scriptures  in  the  original  is  required,  as  well 
as  ability  to  handle  all  questions  in  a  thoroughly 
philosophical  manner. 


G6     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

To  teach  physics  tliero  is  demanded  (1)  in  the 
middle  classes  a  general  knowledge  of  the  most  im- 
portant phenomena  and  their  laws,  and  also  the  ability 
to  demonstrate  the  laws  mathematically,  in  so  far  as  it 
is  possible  without  a  knowledge  of  higher  mathemat- 
ics (i.  e.,  not  beyond  trigonometry  and  elementary 
analytic  geometry).  (2)  For  the  upper  classes,  there  is 
required,  additional  to  the  above,  mathematical  phys- 
ics and  a  more  exact  knowledge  of  the  fundamental 
mathematical  and  physical  investigations  in  the  more 
important  portions  of  theoretical  physics.  For  either 
class  of  certificate  a  facility  in  experimentation  and 
manipulation  of  apparatus  is  required. 

The  examination  in  chemistry  must  exhibit  (1), 
if  for  the  middle  class  certificate,  a  knowledge  of  the 
general  laws  of  chemical  action ;  an  acquaintance 
with  the  most  frequently  recurring  elements,  their 
properties,  and  their  compounds ;  a  knowledge  of 
chemical  technology  and  sufficient  practice  in  con- 
ducting ordinary  school  experiments.  (2)  For  the 
upper  classes  considerably  wider  knowledge  is  re- 
quired. It  includes,  besides  a  more  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  inorganic  chemistry,  the  general  theory  of  the 
constitution  of  organic  compounds,  familiarity  with 
the  most  important  groups  of  organic  compounds 
and  the  single  compounds,  necessary  to  an  under- 
standing of  physiological  phenomena  and  chemical 
technique.  The  candidate  must  also  show  that  he 
is  able  to  arrange  instructional  experiments  easily, 
and  must  exhibit  complete  certainty  in  qualitative 
analysis  and  some  familiarity  with  quantitative  work. 

In  botany,  the  examination  for  (1)  the  lower  classes 


TEACHERS.  67 

covers  a  knowledge  of  the  most  important  native 
and  foreign  plants,  as  well  as  their  individual  organs, 
and  the  ability  to  classify  according  to  the  Linn^eau 
system.  (2)  For  the  middle  classes  there  is  required 
in  addition  the  natural  system,  an  acquaintance  with 
structure  and  life  phenomena.  To  instruct  in  any 
class,  the  examination  must  reveal  close  acquaintance 
with  anatomical-j^hysical  relations,  the  theory  of  evo- 
lution, principles  of  systematic  botany,  and  the  laws 
of  plant  distribution.  Xo  "  higher  class  "  certificate 
is  issued,  since  botany  is  completed  in  the  middle 
grades. 

The  demands  in  zoology  are  quite  parallel  to 
those  in  botany,  and  hence  a  detailed  account  will  be 
unnecessary.  For  all  grades  of  instruction  in  either 
botany  or  zoology,  the  ability  to  draw  plant  and 
animal  forms  and  tissues  is  required. 

In  history  the  examination  covers  (1)  for  the  low- 
est classes  geographical  and  chronological  knowd- 
edge  of  the  events  of  universal  history,  and  especial- 
ly '•^  vaterlandiachen  Gescliichte''''  (German  history). 
A  fair  acquaintance  with  the  literature  of  the  sub- 
ject is  also  demanded.  (2)  The  examination  for  mid- 
dle-class instruction  covers,  in  addition,  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  Greek  and  Eoman  history,  the  funda- 
mental principles  of  the  government  of  Eome  and 
the  most  important  Grecian  states,  and  also  a  more 
comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  developement  of 
systems  of  government.  Medicfival  and  modern  Ger- 
man history,  and  especially  Saxon  and  Prussian  his- 
tory, must  be  thoroughly  understood.  Besides  more 
scientific  and  penetrating  knowledge  of  the  above 


68     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

fields,  there  is  demanded  (3)  for  the  upper  classes 
the  understanding  of  ways  and  means  of  investi- 
gating historical  material  from  the  original  sources. 
The  candidate  must  have  worked  out  some  phase  of 
history  from  the  original  sources.  An  acquaintance 
with  the  most  important  sources  and  with  the  mas- 
terpieces of  historical  literature  must  he  shown. 
Especial  weight  is  placed  upon  the  development  of 
institutions,  the  main  trend  of  the  history  of  civili- 
zation, and  above  all  upon  a  comprehensive  idea  of 
Greek  and  Eoman  antiquity  and  the  medieeval  and 
modern  history  of  Germany. 

2.  Observations  upon  the  Qualifications  for 
Certification. 
From  the  foregoing  it  must  be  admitted  that 
the  regulations  and  requirements  in  the  examination 
of  German  school  teachers  are  certainly  very  rigid. 
The  examinations  call  for  thorough  and  extended 
knowledge  in  all  the  branches  that  the  candidate 
expects  to  teach.  To  instruct  in  the  higher  classes, 
an  especially  exhaustive  knowledge  of  subjects  is 
required.  The  teacher  is  not  only  expected  to  be  mas- 
ter of  the  subject  but  also  an  authority  on  it.  When 
compared  with  the  qualifications  exacted  of  average 
high-school  teachers  in  America,  they  are  found  to 
be  much  higher  in  the  upper  classes  and  in  some 
respects  higher  in  the  middle  classes.  But,  as  pre- 
viously shown,  it  is  not  fair  to  compare  the  average 
high  school  with  the  best  secondary  schools  in  Ger- 
many. Only  those  with  the  full  four-year  courses 
should  be  included,  and  of  these  the  senior  classes 


TEACHERS.  69 

must  be  placed  parallel  with  Upper  Secunda.  This 
leaves  the  last  two  classes  of  the  gymnasia  and  other 
schools  with  nine-year  courses  to  be  compared  with 
the  freshman  and  sophomore  classes  in  American 
colleges.  When  looked  at  in  this  light  the  differ- 
ence is  not  so  great  as  many  have  been  led  to  sup- 
pose from  a  cursory  examination  of  the  systems. 

The  head  teacher's  certificate  entitles  the  holder 
to  teach  in  XJ.  I,  L.  I,  and  U.  II ;  that  is,  in  classes 
which  correspond  to  the  senior  year  in  the  high 
school  and  the  first  two  years  in  college.  Should  wo 
compare  the  qualifications  for  the  position  of  head 
teacher  with  those  of  high-school  teachers,  we  should 
be  forced  to  admit  that  the  difference  indicated  in 
the  requirements  is  very  much  in  favour  of  the  Ger- 
man teacher.  The  number  of  totally  diverse  sub- 
jects covered  by  the  head  teacher  are  not  nearly  so 
numerous  as  is  usually  required  of  the  high-school 
teacher,  but  each  department  is  much  more  exhaust- 
ively treated.  In  mathematics,  for  instance,  trigo- 
nometry is  required  in  only  a  few  high  schools,  in 
fewer  is  analytical  geometry  required,  and  the  calcu- 
lus in  almost  none.  Throughout  the  whole  range  of 
requirements  in  Germany,  the  rule  is  thorough  in- 
vestigation and  mastery;  while  of  our  high-school 
teachers,  it  is  extensive  rather  than  intensive  prep- 
aration that  is  expected. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  pupils  in  Upper  Secunda 
have  much  more  thoroughly  qualified  teachers  than 
the  senior  classes  in  most  American  high  schools. 
Usually  we  make  no  distinction  in  qualifications  re- 
quired of  teachers  of  the  different  grades  in  the  high 


70     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

scliool.  The  same  teacher  may  teach  either  first- 
year  or  fourth-year  classes.  But, 'since  L.  I  and  U.  I 
really  correspond  to  college  grades  in  America,  we 
must  discuss  qualifications  of  teachers  from  that 
standpoint.  Considered  in  this  way,  we  shall  find 
that  the  differences  between  the  teachers  of  a  given 
class  of  pupils  in  the  tAVo  countries  are  not  so  great 
as  many  suppose. 

In  Germany,  for  the  position  of  head  teacher  the 
doctor's  degree  is  not  required.  In  American  col- 
leges, also,  it  is  not.  A  doctor's  degree  is  important 
in  the  head  teacher's  position ;  in  American  colleges 
it  is  also  very  useful.  In  Germany  the  chief  require- 
ment is  exhaustive  knowledge  of  the  subjects  which 
the  candidate  expects  to  teach  ;  in  American  colleges 
this  holds  true.  In  Germany  this  knowledge  is  tested 
by  an  examination ;  in  American  colleges  previous 
acquirements  are  investigated.  In  Germany  the  doc- 
torate is  not  accepted  as  a  sufficient  guarantee  of 
ability  to  teach ;  in  American  colleges  it  usually  is, 
without  regard  to  professional  training,  other  quali- 
fications being  satisfactory.  In  Germany  only  those 
who  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  philosophy  and 
pedagogy  may  occupy  these  positions ;  in  America, 
unfortunately,  training  in  these  important  directions 
is  seldom  a  requisite  for  similar  positions. 

To  make  only  a  few  special  comparisons,  we  might 
talfe  instructors  of  German  in  freshman  and  sopho- 
more classes  in  American  colleges  and  compare  them 
with  teachers  of  English  and  French  in  the  upper 
classes  of  German  secondary  schools.  Instructors  of 
German  are  usually  fully  as  competent  as  teachers 


TEACHERS.  71 

of  English  or  French  in  the  corresponding  classes. 
Our  mathematical  instructors  in  the  lower  college 
classes  are  doubtless  fully  as  well  qualified  as  teach- 
ers in  the  upper  gymnasial  classes.  The  same  would 
hold  true  in  the  sciences  and  history,  and  in  a  large 
measure  in  the  classic  languages.  On  the  whole, 
there  is  a  close  correspondence  between  the  scholar- 
ship demanded  of  a  head  teacher  in  Germany's  sec- 
ondary schools  and  that  of  a  college  instructor  in 
America.  Both  are  expected  to  be  specialists  in  par- 
ticular lines.  The  main  diiferences  lie  in  the  method 
of  examination  and  in  the  propedeutic  knowledge 
required  of  the  head  teacher  and  the  frequent  lack 
of  it  on  the  part  of  the  college  instructor.  /But  when 
we  examine  the  qualifications  of  the  instructors  in 
our  average  high  schools  for  the  purpose  of  compari- 
son with  those  of  German  gymnasial  teachers,  we 
find  a  very  much  greater  difference.  Whether  we 
take  scholastic  preparation  or  professional  training 
into  account,  we  shall  find  the  scales  turning  decid- 
edly in  favour  of  the  German  teachers. 

The  qualifications  exacted  of  an  ordinary  teacher 
in  the  middle  classes,  or  the  three  years  correspond- 
ing to  the  first  three  years  of  our  high  schools,  are 
much  higher  than  are  usually  required  of  high-school 
teachers.  The  teacher  is  expected  to  go  much  more 
deeply  into  the  subjects  he  teaches  than  the  high- 
school  teacher?\  For  example,  in  mathematics  the 
gymnasial  instriictor  must  possess  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  trigonometry,  analytic  and  projective  geom- 
etry, and  differential  and  integral  calculus,  none  of 
which  are  usually  required  of  our  high-school  teachers. 


72     SFX'ONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

In  the  best  American  high  scliools  many  instructors, 
perliaps  most  of  them,  do  understand  these  branches, 
but  a  hick  of  them  is  not  a  legal  disqualification. 
Thus  in  mathematics  considerable  superiority  is  re- 
quired of  the  gymnasial  teacher  over  the  high-school 
teacher.  In  history,  geography,  and  natural  science, 
a  formal  statement  of  the  requirements  does  not  show 
an  essential  difference  from  those  usual  in  America, 
the  most  noticeable  variation  being  in  the  amount 
of  local  geography  and  history  and  the  closer  ac- 
quaintance with  peoples  of  antiquity  which  are  re- 
quired in  the  German  examinations.  But  when  we 
remember  that  the  German  teacher  necessarily  has 
had  training  covering  three  years'  university  work,  in 
addition  to  his  gymnasial  course  (together  an  equiv- 
alent of  five  years'  American  college  and  university 
work),  we  can  easily  see  that  the  actual  attainments 
of  the  German  teacher  in  these  subjects  are  much 
higher  than  those  usually  secured  in  America.  In 
the  fields  of  modern  history  and  geography  we  un- 
doubtedly cover  more  than  they. 

The  American  high-school  teacher  is  usually  re- 
quired to  possess  knowledge  of  a  more  diversified 
character  than  the  gymnasial  teacher.  In  Germany 
never  more  than  four  subjects  are  required,  while  in 
America  often  no  less  than  a  dozen  are  required  in 
the  examination,  if  not  in  the  teaching  work.  This 
makes  a  vast  amount  of  difference  in  favour  of  the 
gymnasial  teacher,  since  he  may  begin  his  specialized 
work  immediately  after  finishing  the  secondary  school 
course.  In  the  universities  he  is  not  limited  in  his 
selection  of  subjects  and  is  required  to  get  up  only 


TEACHERS.  73 

three  subjects  for  the  doctorate.  (These  may  be 
entirely  unrelated  subjects.)  American  high-school 
teachers  usually  have  little  time  to  specialize,  because 
so  many  subjects  must  be  prepared  for  examination. 
I  refer  here  mainly  to  state-board  examinations.  In 
the  larger  city  high  schools  we  find,  not  infrequently, 
specialists  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  their  cho- 
sen subjects  both  during  their  college  course  and  sub- 
sequent to  it.  This  is  more  the  rule  in  the  Eastern 
than  in  the  Central  and  Western  States.  In  certain 
cities  the  examinations  are  of  a  specialized  character, 
or  there  are  no  examinations  at  all.  Only  those  who 
are  known  to  be  specialists,  either  from  their  college 
credentials  or  from  some  special  work  accomplished, 
can  secure  positions.  The  days  of  the  general  "  all- 
round  "  man,  with  no  real  mastery  of  anything,  are 
becoming  numbered.  Even  where  the  States  grant 
licenses  to  teach  in  special  departments,  as  German, 
Latin,  music,  or  drawing,  the  examination  is  usually 
confined  to  those  branches. 

It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  teachers  of  English  in 
the  German  secondary  schools  are  not,  as  a  rule,  so 
well  prepared  for  that  special  branch  as  the  teachers 
of  German  in  our  best  high  schools  are  for  their 
specialty.  The  gymnasium  teacher  has  usually  de- 
voted more  attention  to  grammar,  the  scientific  laws 
of  the  development  of  language,  and  to  the  laws  of 
versification  than  the  high-school  teacher.  The 
German  instructor  understands  English  well  from 
the  mechanical  side — that  is,  as  an  acquired  product 
— but  it  is  always  an  artificial  product.  There  is  a 
lack  of  expression,  a  wretched  pronunciation,  and  a 


74     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

strained,  awkward  application  of  words  and  phrases 
which  are  inevitable  witlioiit  a  living  connection  with 
the  language.  Most  of  them  have  never  heard  Eng- 
lish spoken  by  an  Englishman ;  they  have  learned 
their  pronunciation  from  the  dictionary  or  from  a 
teacher  who  learned  his  pronunciation  in  that  way. 

From  the  very  nature  of  things  the  advantages 
are  witli  us.  A  large  majority  of  teachers  of  Ger- 
man in  our  high  schools  and  colleges  (and  lower 
schools  where  it  is  taught)  are  either  of  German 
birth  or  of  German  parentage,  and  have  kno\^Ti  the 
language  from  childhood.  In  many  cases  it  is  their 
first-learned  language,  and  hence  they  are  fully  as 
conversant  with  it  as  with  English.  That  German 
is  not  always  well  taught  in  American  high  schools 
is  too  true,  but  the  defect  is  in  the  methods  which 
teachers  are  so  often  obliged  to  pursue,  and  not  in 
the  capabilities  of  tlie  teachers.  A  language  must 
be  taught  as  an  instrument  of  thought  and  expres- 
sion if  best  results  are  to  be  obtained.  Mastery  can 
not  be  gained  by  studying  grammatical  rules.  (See 
discussion  later  under  Modern  Languages.) 

That  the  gymnasial  instructors  are  better  pre- 
pared in  the  classics  than  high-school  teachers  is 
very  evident.  However,  there  a  teacher  of  the 
classics  is  not  expected  to  be  prepared  to  teach  every 
"  ology "  known  to  modern  science.  It  could  be 
easily  shown  that  in  the  first  two  years  of  college  we 
have  as  well  prepared  teachers  of  the  classics  as  are 
to  be  found  in  the  upper  classes  of  the  gymnasia. 

One  direction  in  Avhich  the  Germans  make  heavy 
demands  for  all  grades  of  secondary  instruction  is 


TEACHERS.  Y5 

that  of  philosophical  pedagogy.  As  was  seen  from 
the  outline  of  requirements,  none  are  exempt  from 
possessing  thorough  insight  into  the  principles  of 
empirical  psychology,  pedagogics,  and  the  general 
trend  of  philosophical  thought.  This  insures  a  class 
of  teachers  who  can  study  educational  problems 
philosophically,  and  who  can  apply  the  principles  of 
psychology  to  all  instruction.  In  the  United  States 
a  few  may  be  prepared  in  them,  but  the  gen- 
eral rule  is  that  high-school  teachers,  and  even 
those  who  instruct  freshmen  and  sophomores  in 
college,  are  sadly  deficient  in  these  essentials.  The 
requirement  of  philosophical-pedagogical  grounding 
for  the  profession  of  teaching  is  highly  essential, 
and  the  example  that  Germany  sets  us  should  be 
heeded.  Other  elements  of  preparation  of  teachers 
will  be  pointed  out  in  the  section  on  Training  of 
Teachers. 

r^^'^n  the  whole,  it  seems  apparent  that  the  prepa- 
'ration  of  teachers  in  the  secondary  schools  and  the 
requirements  exacted  of  them  are  very  much  higher 
than  for  teaching  in  our  high  schools.  Although  we 
have  many  teachers  in  our  high  schools  who  are  splen- 
didly equipped  for  their  work,  yet,  as  a  body,  our 
teachers  are  on  a  considerably  lower  level,  if  we  may 
judge  from  required  preparation.  It  is  especially 
true  that  beginners  in  our  schools  start  out  with 
preparation  much  inferior  to  that  demanded  of 
teachers  in  German  secondary  schools.  Many  of  our 
teachers  acquire  by  experience  and  subsequent  study 
high  positions  in  the  ranks  of  teachers  ;  but  the 
qualifications  demanded  for  entrance  upon  the  work 
7 


76     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

are  so  low  that  it  is  not  surprising  tliat  the  average 
attainments  are  not  hi":her. 


3.  Training  of  Teachers. 

(A)  Introductory. 

V  That  something  besides  a  knowledge  of  facts  and 
acquaintance  with  subjects  is  necessary  to  the  art  of 
teaching  is  well  recognised  in  Germany  and  is  con- 
stantly gaining  more  emphasis.  Xot  even  the  scholar 
with  his  doctor's  diploma,  who  is  recognised  as  hav- 
ing gained  the  power  of  independent  research,  is 
allowed  to  go  into  the  schools  to  attempt  untried 
methods  of  training  youthful  minds.  He  may  have 
become  ever  so  skilful  in  his  special  department  of 
investigation,  but  this  is  not  accepted  as  a  training 
which  insures  universal  perfection  in  all  arts.  Xei- 
ther  do  they  accept  without  qualification  the  old 
adage  that  "  teachers  are  born,  not  made  "  ;  all,  how- 
ever well  adapted  they  may  think  themselves  to  be, 
must  partake  of  those  special  forms  of  instruction 
and  training  that  are  deemed  of  special  value  in 
preparing  to  teach  and  train  the  young.  As  a  first 
requisite  in  attempting  to  train  human  beings  to  a 
complete  and  symmetrical  deveTopment  there  ought 
to  "bell  kno\^TMgeoT"th^lrumaTr-bBing,  and  especially 
of  tliat  sul3t!e__someTTimg  we  caTTminSr  Besides  a 
knowledge  of  mental  pFenomeha  and  the  laws  of 
mental  growth  and  develoi^ment,  the  emotions,  and 
the  will,  which  by  many  psychologists  are  placed 
above  the  intellect  in  importance,  must  be  under- 
stood.    Beinirs  are  not  alone  to  be  filled  with  knowl- 


TEACHERS.  77 

edge,  but  their  moral  natures  are  to  be  studied,  cared 
for,  and  developed  into  impulses  and  desires  that 
shall  guide  the  physical  and  intellectual  natures  to 
higher  and  nobler  actions.  In  order  to  arrive  at  sound 
pedagogical  conclusions  it  is  not  safe  to  depend  alto- 
gether upon  the  momentary  decisions  regarding  im- 
portant questions  relating  to  mental  and  moral  life ; 
hence  a  study  of  psychology,  ethics,  and  school  man- 
agement, guided  and  supported  by  historical  expe- 
riences, is  fundamental  in  the  teacher's  equipmentj 
Upon  these  assumptions  the  Germans  base  their  re- 
quirements for  entering  this  highest  of  callings.  The 
examination,  Avhich  is  the  first  test  to  which  candi- 
dates are  subjected,  is  to  determine  whether  a  suf- 
ficient knowledge  of  the  chosen  subjects  and  their 
relations  to  the  whole  of  knowledge  has  been  mas- 
tered, and  also  to  determine  whether  the  strictly 
professional  subjects  have  been  learned  thoroughly 
enough  to  give  a  broad  scientific  view  of  man  and 
the  laws  of  his  development.  Thus,  although  the 
subjects  which  the  candidate  expects  to  teach  may 
be  of  his  own  choosing,  the  strictly  professional  sub- 
jects of  psychology,  pedagogy,  and  philosophy  are 
obligatory  upon  all  alike.  A  philosophical  world- 
view  is  necessary  to  soundness  of  judgment  and  bal- 
ance of  mind.  This  is  to  be  gained  from  a  study 
of  systems  of  philosophy  and  pedagogy  (which,  in  a 
strict  sense,  are  a  history  of  the  development  of 
thought),  both  current  systems  and  those  that  have 
influenced  the  course  of  history. 

But  the  examination  is  only  the  first  step.     Al- 
though a  candidate  passes  this  creditably,  or  even 


78     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

with  highest  lionours,  he  is  not  iillowcd  in  most 
parts  of  Germany  to  enter  upon  tlie  duties  of  teach- 
ing in  a  permanent  position  v.ithout  first  taking  a 
course  of  training  which  shall,  on  the  one  hand,  add 
to^his  theoretical  insight,  and,  on  tlie  other  hand, 
a^ord  him  practice  under  guidance,  by  means  of 
which  he  may  exhibit  his  power  of  and  adaptation 
for  teaching.  Teachers  in  the  people's  schools  usu- 
ally receive  a  course  of  training  in  seminaries  or  nor- 
mal schools,  Avhere  the  work  of  academic  instruction 
is  carried  on  simultaneously  with  theoretical  and 
practical  professional  instruction.  A  part  of  the 
secondary  teachers  are  trained  in  the  normal  schools, 
but  the  number  is  decreasing,  and  the  university- 
trained  teacher  occupies  a  much  higher  position  so- 
cially and  professionally,  and  receives  a  considerably 
larger  salary  than  the  one  who  is  normal-trained  (see 
Table  of  Salaries). 

(B)  EstaMishmcnt  of  Seminaries. 

After  candidates  have  passed  their  first  examina- 
tion, before  receiving  a  regular  appointment  as  teach- 
ers in  the  schools,  in  a  large  part  of  Germany  they 
are  obliged  to  spend  a  certain  amount  of  time  in  ob- 
taining practical  preparation  for  their  calling.  In 
this  respect  it  Avill  be  seen  from  what  follows  that 
requirements  of  various  states  are  not  entirely  uni- 
form. Usually  this  preparatory  period  covers  two 
years,  and  is  divided  into  a  seminary  year  {Seminar- 
jalir)  and  a  following  trial  year  {Pi'ohejnhr).  I  am 
told  by  teachers  in  the  schools  that  although  this  is 
theoretically   true,   nevertheless,  in    practice,   espe- 


TEACHERS.  79 

cially  in  Saxony,  candidates  are  often  received  into 
the  schools  as  regular  (salaried,  but  not  permanent) 
assistants  without  taking  either  the  seminary  year 
or  the  trial  year.  This  is  more  frequently  the  case 
when  the  number  of  candidates  is  small  and  posi- 
tions are  sufficiently  numerous.  When  conditions  are 
reversed  they  can  not  so  easily  secure  an  appoint- 
ment. 

Prussia  requires  all  teachers  to  be  seminar}^ 
trained,  and  has  provided  a  sufhcient  number  of  in- 
stitutions to  accommodate  all.  There  are  at  present 
in  Prussia  eleven  older  school  seminaries,  thirty-five 
gymnasium  seminaries,  and  university  seminaries  at 
Gottingen  and  Miinster.* 

In  Saxony  there  are  no  laws  regulating  the  organi- 
zation of  seminaries  in  general,  but,  however,  they 
are  contemplated.  The  University  of  Leipsic  (later 
described)  has  one  of  the  best  developed  systems  of 
seminary  work  in  Germany,  The  Eoyal  Gymnasium 
has  a  seminary,  connected  on  the  one  side  with  the 

*  The  older  schoo]  seminaries  in  Prussia  are  situated  at  the 
following  places,  viz. :  Berlin,  Stettin,  Konigsberg,  Breslau, 
Gottingen,  Magdeburg,  Dantzic,  Posen,  Cassel,  Coblentz,  Miin- 
ster. The  thirty-five  gymnasial  seminaries  are  distributed  as 
follows:  East  Prussia — Konigsberg,  Gumbinnen;  West  Prus- 
sia— Dantzic,  Brandenburg,  Berlin  (four),  Prenzfeu.  Frankfort, 
Lauenburg,  Posen,  Bromberg ;  Silesia — Breslau,  Licgnitz;  Sax- 
on Prussia — Burg,  Wernigerode,  Halle  ;  Schleswig-Holstein 
— Flensburg,  Altona  ;  Hanover — Hanover,  Gosler,  Leer  (two) ; 
Westphalia.  Arnsburg,  Warburg,  Iserlohn ;  Hesse-Xassau — 
Wielburg,  Wiesbaden,  Frankfort,  Klingenschule ;  Rhine  Prov- 
inces— Gladbach  (two),  Cologne,  Bremen,  Diisseldorf  (two). 
(From  Baumeister's  Ilandbuch,  xxi,  p.  73;  article  by  Fries.) 


80     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

gymnasium  and  on  the  other  with  the  university. 
Probably  this  form  of  seminary  as  a  preparation  for 
the  work  of  teaching  in  the  secondary  schools  is  un- 
excelled. All  other  forms  of  seminary  have  some 
conspicuous  lack,  the  main  defect  in  them  being 
the  lack  of  opportunity  for  combining  higher  uni- 
versity study  and  theoretical  consideration  of  sub- 
jects with  the  practical  Avork  of  the  teacher.* 

Bavaria  as  yet  has  no  definite  laws  relating  to  the 
establishment  of  pedagogical  seminaries,  but  there  is 
being  made  a  practical  test  to  determine  their  effi- 
ciency. The  first  seminaries  were  provisionally 
opened  in  1893  in  Munich,  Wiirzburg,  and  Erlangen. 
In  1894  two  more,  one  in  Neuberg  and  another  in 
Eegensburg,  were  started. 

The  examination  commissions  already  make  a 
difference  in  favour  of  those  candidates  who  have 
attended  pedagogical  lectures,  over  those  who  are 
simply  qualified  in  the  branches  of  knowledge  in 
their  chosen  department.  If  the  candidates  have 
had  practical  preparation  additional,  they  are  not 
required  to  attend  a  pedagogical  seminary  but  may 
demonstrate  their  professional  abilities  in  some  suit- 
able school  in  Munich. 

In  Wiirtemberg  there  are  no  laws  requiring 
teachers  to  be  seminary  trained,  but  a  seminary  has 
grown  up  in  the  University  of  Tubingen.  Lectures 
in  pedagogy  are  often  delivered  there,  but,  however, 
they  are  of  the  purely  theoretical  sort,  and  deal  little 
with  the  practical  aspects  of  the  teacher's  profession. 
The  philological  seminary  attempts  something  in  the 

*  Fries,  Die  Vorbildunj:  der  Lehrer  fiir  das  Lehrarat,  p.  192. 


TEACHERS.  81 

way  of  offering  practical  exercises  in  that  particular 
line  of  instruction.* 

There  are  at  present  three  pedagogical  seminaries 
in  Hesse :  one  long  established  in  Giessen  (1876), 
under  the  leadership  of  the  well-known  writer  on 
pedagogy,  H.  Schiller,  a  second  at  Worms  (1889),  and 
a  third  in  Darmstadt  (1890),  Only  those  candidates 
are  taken  who  have  passed  the  State  examination  for 
positions  in  the  secondary  schools. 

(C)   The  Workings  of  the  Pedagogical  Seminaries. 

To  meet  the  demands  for  the  professional  train- 
ing of  secondary  school  teachers,  four  forms  of  insti- 
tutions have  arisen.  They  are  (1)  the  normal 
schools  {Lehrer-seminarien),  (3)  the  gymnasial  semi- 
naries, (3)  seminaries  in  connection  with  elementary 
schools,  and  (4)  those  in  connection  with  the  uni- 
versities. 

The  normal  schools  are  mainly  devoted  to  train- 
ing teachers  for  the  elementary  schools,  and  need 
not  be  described  here.  Those  older  seminaries  in 
connection  with  schools,  because  of  their  historical 
priority  and  importance,  will  be  treated  from  that 
point  of  view,  and  one  noted  example,  that  at 
Giessen,  will  be  briefly  described  in  its  present  work- 
ings. The  gymnasial  seminary  will  be  outlined  in 
connection  with  the  Prussian  regulations  governing 
the  training  of  all  secondary-school  teachers,  which 
will  give  a  fair  type  of  the  training  received  in  gym- 
nasial seminaries  throughout  Germany. 

*  Fries,  Die  Voi'bildung  der  Lehrer  f  iir  das  Lehramt,  p.  76. 


82     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


I.  Older  Seminaries  in  Connection  with  Schools. 

The  earliest  semiiiury  for  teachers  was  the  histor- 
ical "  Seminariuiu  Prajceptorum  "  in  Ilalle,  which  was 
founded  in  1696  by  the  renowned  A.  H.  Francke. 
This  school  attempted  thorough  instruction  in  aca- 
demic branches,  theory  of  education,  observation  of 
school  organization  and  methods,  and  practice  in 
applying  principles.  Its  avowed  purpose  was  to  fit 
for  greater  usefulness  those  who  expected  to  teach. 
Although  the  seminarium  was  poorly  organized,  con- 
sidered from  modern  standpoints,  yet  it  had  a  wide 
circle  of  usefulness  at  that  time  and  is  of  great  in- 
terest still,  inasmuch  as  it  was  the  initial  step  in 
the  great  movement  toward  a  professional  prepa- 
ration of  teachers,  and  as  it  resulted  in  the  mod- 
ern normal  school  (whose  functions,  in  Germany, 
are  becoming  more  and  more  relegated  to  the  realm 
of  training  elementary  teachers),  the  university 
pedagogical  seminary,  and  the  latest  development, 
the  seminary  in  connection  with  the  secondary 
schools,  especially  those  in  connection  with  the  gym- 
nasium. 

As  particularly  interesting  examples  of  impor- 
tant seminaries  in  connection  with  schools  may  be 
mentioned  the  ones  in  Berlin,  Stettin,  Gottingen, 
Giessen,  and  \Yeimar.  By  the  seminaries  in  connec- 
tion with  schools,  I  mean  those  distinguished  from 
the  gymnasial  seminaries,  which  are  in  connection 
with  secondary  schools  only.  Since  this  treatment 
is  not  historical,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  trace  the 
detailed   development  of   the  foregoing  seminaries, 


TEACHERS.  83 

but  only  the  present  working  of  one,  that  at  Giessen, 
will  be  briefly  described. 

In  Giessen  the  members  assemble  weekly  for  dis- 
cussion of  theory.  They  visit  classes  and  subse- 
quently undertake  instruction  under  conditions  sim- 
ilar to  those  in  connection  with  other  seminaries 
later  described.  The  candidates  begin  instruction 
in  the  Vorschule  and  then  gradually  ascend  to  the 
gymnasium  classes,  up  to  Secunda.  This  is  to  give 
candidates  a  well-ordered  and  developed  knowledge 
of  the  instruction  in  their  respective  branches. 

Besides  this,  Schiller,  the  director,  undertakes 
departmental  discussion  of  subjects  to  connect  with 
the  university  study  of  the  same  branches.  He  also 
delivers  pedagogical  lectures  in  the  university  of 
which  he  is  professor.  During  the  seminary  course 
a  pedagogical  thesis  is  required  of  each  candidate. 

The  following  subjects  for  theses  are  selected 
from  some  given  by  Schiller  in  Giessen  {Pddagogische 
hhmnarieti,  Tp.  138):  The  value  of  historical*  poems 
in  historical  instruction.  Instruction  in  physics  in 
the  lower  grades.  Geometrical  (Anschauungs)  in- 
struction. The  first  mathematical  instruction  in 
Lower  Tertia.  Concentration  in  language,  histori- 
cal, and  geographical  instruction  in  Quarta. 

Fries  quotes  the  following  from  Muff,  which  he 
considers  especially  fit  ones  : 

The  method  of  Latin  instruction  in  Sexta,  with 
special  consideration  of  Perth's  proposal  for  reform. 

Method  of  instruction  in  geometry  in  Quarta, 
with  special  consideration  of  Eeishaus's  Vorschule 
der  Geometric. 


84     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

How  shall  historical  instruction  be  conducted  so 
that  pupils  will  not  only  be  receptive  but  will  co- 
operate in  the  work  ? 

Concentration  of  the  instruction  in  Lower  Ter- 
tia  according  to  the  new  course  of  studies. 

Instruction  in  German  in  Lower  Tertia  as  given 
in  Muff's  new  reading  book. 

How  is  descriptive  natural  science  in  the  lower 
classes  to  be  made  anschauUch  (objective)  ? 

Sometimes  themes  are  given  which  bear  more 
directly  upon  particular  branches  which  the  candi- 
date is  preparing  to  teach.  These  are  examples  :  May 
the  history  of  the  earth  and  the  earth's  crust  be 
adequately  considered  in  a  half-year's  course  (as  was 
required  in  the  former  outline  of  studies)  ?  What 
Anschauungs-material  must  be  made  use  of  in  the 
various  grades  of  school  ?  How  shall  the  forty  dis- 
posable hours  be  divided  ?  Discuss  the  concentra- 
tion of  ancient  languages  and  ancient  history  instruc- 
tion. Discuss  the  teaching  of  ancient  languages  and 
history  in  Quarta  as  to  selection  of  material  and  to 
methods  of  instruction.  The  reading  exercise  as  the 
central  point  of  modern  language  instruction.  "What 
demands  do  the  exponents  of  phonetics  make  in  the 
preliminary  instruction  in  French  and  how  far  may 
these  be  complied  with  ?  Discuss  natural  science 
instruction  in  Upper  Tertia  of  the  realistic  scliools 
according  to  the  old  and  to  the  new  courses  of  study. 
Discuss  the  translation  of  German  into  ancient  lan- 
guages. The  treatment  of  poetry  in  instruction  in 
German  in  Tertia.  The  nature  of  artificial,  judi- 
cious, and  mechanical  memories  are  to  be  discussed, 


TEACHERS.  85 

and  in  connection  with  the  discussion  a  definite  se- 
lection of  memory  material  is  to  be  examined. 

II.  Gymnasial  Seminaries — Prussian  Regulations  Govern- 
ing THE  Training  of  Teachers. 

The  last  form  of  teacher's  seminary  developed  was 
the  one  in  connection  with  the  gymnasia.  It  is  the 
most  specifically  differentiated  of  all  the  seminaries, 
and  consequently  the  most  thoroughly  organized  for 
a  specific  function.  It  is  for  secondary  teachers 
alone,  and  makes  its  conditions  for  admission  very 
rigid.  It  arose  from  the  necessities  of  a  more  inti- 
mate connection  between  theoretical  training  and 
actual  practice  in  instruction  and  school  manage- 
ment. Between  theoretical  study  and  practice  under 
unnatural  conditions  offered  by  normal  schools  and 
the  actualities  of  school  work,  many  German  edu- 
cators believe  there  exists  too  great  a  gap.  To  train 
best  the  teacher  to  be,  after  mastering  the  academic 
work  offered  in  the  universities,  he  must  study  theory 
and  practice  amidst  the  usual  conditions  which  he 
will  meet  when  he  takes  charge  of  a  school  for  him- 
self. That  is,  the  practice  work  must  not  only  bo 
carefully  planned  and  criticized,  but  it  must  be  exe- 
cuted under  natural  conditions,  and  in  the  same 
grades  of  classes  and  in  the  same  subjects  as  the 
student  will  afterward  teach,  and  not  under  purely 
artificial  conditions. 

It  was  this  enlightened  conception  of  what  prac- 
tice teaching  should  be  that  gave  rise  to  the  gymna- 
sial seminary. 

Below  are  given  the  main  requirements  of  Prussia, 


86     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

as  published  in  the  enactment  of  March  15,  1890,* 
governing  the  training  of  all  its  secondary-school 
teachers.  As  tliirty-five  of  the  forty-eight  Prussian 
seminaries  are  gynmasial,  tliis  required  training  is 
largely  secured  in  tliat  class  of  institutions,  and  it 
may  be  taken  as  a  fair  type  of  the  work  offered  in 
gynmasial  seminaries  throughout  Germany. 

The  required  training  must  cover  two  years  of 
preparation,  the  first  called  the  seminary  year  {Semi- 
narjahr)  and  the  second  the  trial  year  {Prohejahr). 

The  seminary  year  must  be  passed  in  some  peda- 
gogical seminary  or  in  a  seminary  connected  with 
jisome  of  the  secondary  schools  having  a  nine  years' 
\  course  and,  if  possible,  a  Vorschule.  During  this  time 
/  the  candidate  is  to  become  acquainted  with  the  prob- 
lems of  instruction  and  education  and  their  applica- 
tion in  secondary  schools,  and  to  become  specially 
well  acquainted  with  methods  of  instruction  in  the 
individual  branches. 

The  trial  year  is  usually  to  be  passed  in  some  other 
institution  than  the  one  in  which  the  seminary  year 
was  passed.  During  this  year  the  candidate  is  ex- 
pected to  exhibit  the  powers  of  independent  instruc- 
tion that  he  is  sujDposed  to  have  gained  in  the  semi- 
nary year. 

Seminarii  Year. — Candidates  are  received  into 
the  seminaries  from  any  part  of  Germany,  though 
in  case  of  overcrowding  preference  is  given  to  resi- 
dents of  Prussia.  Usually  not  more  than  six  candi- 
dates at  a  time  are  received  in  the  institutions  which 

*Ordnung  der  praktischen  Ausbildung  der  Kandidaten  fiir 
das  Lehrarat  an  den  hOheren  Schulen,  1890. 


TEACHERS.  87 

are  not  regular  seminaries.  All  of  the  seminaries 
are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  provincial  school 
board. 

Before  the  practical  part  of  the  candidate's  train- 
ing is  begun  he  is  expected  to  study  theoretically  the 
problems  he  will  have  to  deal  with.  This  theoretical 
training  consists  of  discussions  relating  to  carefully 
prepared  pedagogical  questions.  These  are  selected 
by  the  director  and  discussed  with  him,  and  may  be 
drawn  from  "  the  most  important  principles  of  the 
theory  of  instruction  and  education  and  their  appli- 
cation to  higher  schools,  especially  in  the  course  of 
instruction  represented  by  the  chief  subjects  se- 
lected by  the  candidate  ;  also  an  historical  study  of 
the  important  disciples  of  the  newer  pedagogy  (since 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century)." 

Eules  for  preparation  for  the  instruction  hour, 
judgment  concerning  observation  of  lessons  given  by 
candidates,  fundamentals  of  discipline,  when  possi- 
ble in  connection  with  individual  cases,  etc.,  are  to  be 
discussed.  Short  discussions  are  to  be  prepared  upon 
topics  relating  to  the  technique  of  pedagogics  and 
the  school.  These  may  be  selected  from  particular 
points  in  the  general  course  of  studies,  examination 
regulations,  the  transactions  of  the  Prussian  Direc- 
tors' Conferences,  the  oflBcially  published  special 
courses  of  study  for  secondary  schools,  or  from  im- 
portant newly  published  writings  in  the  domain  of 
pedagogy.  Important  methods,  helps  to  instruction, 
apparatus,  or  principles  of  hygiene,  etc.,  often  fur- 
nish themes  for  discussion. 

Three  months  before  the  close  of  the  seminary 


88     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

year  ciifli  cundidate  is  required  to  prepare  a  thesis 
upon  some  concrete  pedagogical  or  didactic  subject 
selected  by  the  director. 

In  connection  with  the  above  theoretical  work 
each  candidate  must  take  part  in  the  practical  work 
of  the  seminary.  This  consists  of  visitation  of  the 
classes  taught  by  the  director  and  other  designated 
teachers,  and  in  teaching  a  certain  number  of  hours 
weekly,  usually  two.  The  teaching  is  done  in  the 
presence  of  the  director  and  others  who  are  commis- 
sioned by  him  to  observe,  usually  the  department 
teachers  and  some  of  the  candidates.  The  teaching 
work  is  not  given  to  candidates  until  the  second  quar- 
ter of  the  year,  and  is  at  first  limited  to  short  exer- 
cises, which  are  gradually  extended.  These  lessons 
are  carefully  prepared,  and  after  being  given  they  are 
thoroughly  discussed  from  theoretical  and  practical 
pedagogical  standpoints. 

Candidates  are  expected  to  visit  other  schools  in 
the  vicinity  when  their  time  is  not  otherwise  occu- 
pied by  work  in  the  seminary  school.  School  ap- 
paratus and  helps  are  to  become  familiar  to  them, 
especially  the  apparatus  and  appliances  in  natural 
science  and  geography.  They  are  to  take  part  in  con- 
ducting work  hours  of  pupils,  and  also  play  hours, 
especially  the  turner's  (physical  training)  exercise. 

The  regular  department  teacher  reports  monthly 
to  the  director  his  opinion  of  the  candidate's  work. 
Four  weeks  before  the  close  of  the  seminary  year 
the  director  submits  to  the  provincial  school  board 
{Schulkollegium)  a  report  concerning  the  work  of 
each  candidate  for  the  seminary  year.     This  report 


TEACHERS.  80 

must  discuss  the  diligence  and  capabilities  of  the 
student,  his  actual  accomplishments  and  natural  apt- 
itude for  teaching,  as  well  as  faults  and  failures  that 
may  have  been  noticed.  This  report,  accompanied  by 
the  thesis  above  mentioned,  forms  the  basis  for  de- 
termining whether  the  candidate  may  be  admitted 
by  the  provincial  school  board  to  the  trial  year. 

Trial  Year. — During  the  trial  year  each  student 
is  required  to  give  from  eight  to  ten  hours  of  in- 
struction weekly  under  guidance  of  the  director 
and  the  department  teacher.  As  in  the  seminary 
year,  all  lessons  must  be  carefully  planned  and  dis- 
cussed before  given,  and  are  afterward  subject  to 
criticism,  based  upon  the  manner  in  which  the  in- 
struction was  imparted.  Besides  these  eight  to  ten 
hours,  which  are  given  without  salary,  the  student 
may,  if  capable,  and  the  organization  permits,  give 
additional  instruction  for  which  he  receives  pay. 
The  whole  number  of  hours  of  weekly  instruction 
may  not,  however,  exceed  twenty.  All  the  work  is 
outlined  and  apportioned  by  the  director,  who  re- 
quires a  faithful  and  diligent  performance  of  all 
duties  assigned.  The  main  part  of  the  instruction 
falls  within  the  candidate's  chief  subjects,  though 
work  is  assigned  in  several  branches  and  in  more 
than  one  grade. 

The  department  teacher  is  required  to  be  pres- 
ent at  all  exercises  offered  by  the  candidate  during 
the  first  quarter  of  the  year.  After  that  time,  at 
least  twice  each  month,  it  is  obligatory  for  him  to 
visit  the  recitations.  However,  at  all  times  he  must 
keep  himself  informed  of  the  progress  of  the  work. 


90     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

and  hold  himself  in  readiness  to  check  or  counteract 
any  wrong  or  fruitless  work.  He  is  to  report  peri- 
odically concerning  the  work  of  the  candidates. 

In  addition  to  the  teaching  assigned,  the  candi- 
date has  outside  duties  similar  to  those  expected  of 
him  in  the  seminary  year.  He  is  required  to  be 
present  at  the  teachers'  conferences,  where  he  has 
full  voice  in  discussing  matters  (when  giving  paid 
instruction),  to  visit  certain  designated  classes,  sub- 
mit reports  of  pupil's  work,  attend  the  usual  exam- 
inations, give  reports  of  examinations,  and  such 
other  work  as  comes  within  his  sphere  of  teaching 
and  is  assigned  to  him.  He  may  be  given  charge 
of  special  pupils,  who  are  behind  in  their  studies  or 
who  need  individual  guidance.  At  the  close  of  the 
year  each  candidate  must  prepare  a  written  report 
and  estimate  of  the  work  that  he  has  accomplished. 
This,  together  with  the  report  of  the  director,  which 
is  based  upon  his  own  observations  and  the  reports 
of  the  department  teacher,  is  submitted  to  the  pro- 
vincial school  board  for  consideration.  If  the  suc- 
cess in  the  seminary  year  and  the  trial  year  has 
been  satisfactory,  and  a  thesis  of  a  sufficiently  schol- 
arly character  has  been  presented,  the  school  board 
may  issue  a  certificate  permitting  the  candidate  to 
teach  in  any  position  indicated  by  the  results  of 
his  first  examination,  which  determines  the  subjects 
and  the  grade  of  positions. 

In  special  cases,  persons  may  be  assigned  to  po- 
sitions without  having  received  the  two  years  of 
practical  training.  This  is  true  for  ministers  who 
wish  to  give  instruction  in  religion. 


TEACHERS.  91 

III.  University  Seminaries. 

To  meet  the  demand  for  a  study  of  education 
based  on  a  wider  scientific  knowledge,  and  especially 
a  philosophical  training,  the  university  seminary 
was  organized.  The  pioneer  in  this  direction  was 
the  seminary  organized  in  1715,  by  J.  M.  Gessner, 
in  the  University  of  Gottingen.  It  was  more  espe- 
cially devoted  to  a  theoretical  study  of  education, 
based  upon  historical  pedagogy  and  philosophy. 
Such  educators  as  Eatke,  Comenius,  and  Locke  were 
read,  didactic  theories  were  discussed,  and  rules  for 
instruction  were  formulated.  During  the  early 
existence  of  the  seminary  no  practice  work  was  at- 
tempted, but  at  a  later  date  it  came  to  occupy  a  per- 
manent position  in  the  university  seminary.  As  other 
notable  examples  we  may  mention  several  univer- 
sity seminaries,  nearly  all  of  which  have  continued 
with  widening  influence  and  usefulness  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  J.  8.  Seniler  organized  the  one  at  Halle 
in  1765  ;  Fr.  A.  Wiedeburg,  at  Helmstedt,  1779  ;  Fr. 
H.  Ch.  Schwarz,  at  Heidelberg,  1809  ;  Kiel,  1777 ; 
Brzoska,  at  Jena,  1832  ;  Ziller,  at  Leipsic,  1861 ;  and 
at  last  we  mention  the  one  at  Konigsberg,  founded 
in  1809  by  the  great  theorist,  Herbart. 

There  are  seven  university  seminaries  in  G  er- 
many,  distributed  as  follows  : 

I.  Giving  theoretical  instruction  only — Gottingen. 

II.  Combining  theory  with  practice  : 

(a)  In  connection  with  regularly  organized 
gymnasia — Heidelberg,  Leipsic,  Miinster,  Tubing- 
en, Freiburg. 


92     SECONDARY  SCnOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

(h)  Having  a  model  school  of  its  own — Jena.* 
The  Seminary/  at  Jena. — The  pedagogical  renown 
of  Jena  is  world-wide.  For  the  last  three  quarters 
of  this  century  it  has  been  the  stronghold  of  the 
Herbartian  school.  The  ablest  exponents  of  Ilerbar- 
tian  principles  have  there  been  active  during  the 
whole  or  a  part  of  their  educational  careers.  Brzos- 
ka,  while  in  KOnigsberg,  was  influenced  by  Herbart 
along  pedagogical  and  psychological  lines,  and  was 
the  first  in  Jena  University  to  offer  lectures  on  psy- 
chology and  pedagogy.  He  announced  practical 
courses  in  a  practice  school,  but  so  few  took  part 
that  he  abandoned  the  project. 

Graefe,  a  burgher-school  director,  attempted  to 
carry  out  the  same  work,  but  also  failed.  The  one 
to  whom  success  came,  however,  was  Dr.  Stoy,  wlio 
succeeded  in  building  up  a  pedagogical  seminary  in 
1843.  Since  then  it  has  had  almost  continuous  exist- 
ence, f  and  Herbartian  doctrines  have  been  expound- 
ed by  enthusiastic  disciples  of  that  great  man ;  in- 
struction based  upon  Herbartian  principles  has 
been  exemplified  in  the  practice  schools,  and  men 
who  have  heard  and  seen  at  Jena  have  implanted 
the  new  doctrines  in  every  civilized  land.  During 
the  greater  part  of  the  seminary's,  existence  the 
practice  work  has  been  in  various  grades  of  burgher 

*  The  seminaries  at  Halle,  Strasbur^^,  Konigsberg,  and 
Kiel,  which  have  been  renowned,  are  all  discontinued — the 
one  at  Strasburg  since  1892.  Though  not  regularly  organized 
by  law,  Karlsruhe  has  a  seminary  patterned  after  the  one  at 
Heidelberg. 

f  Except  from  1865  to  1874,  when  Dr.  Stoy  was  in  Heidelberg. 


TEACHERS.  93 

schools ;  but  since  the  successor  of  Stoy,  Dr.  Eein, 
has  been  in  control,  a  gymnasium  class  has  been  add- 
ed, so  that  all  grades  of  primary  and  secondary  in- 
struction are  represented.  Since  1891,  the  seminary 
under  Dr.  Eein,  and  the  one  in  connection  with  the 
royal  gymnasium  under  Dr.  Richter,  have  been 
united.  Dr.  Eein  being  in  charge  of  the  theory  of  in- 
struction and  education  and  its  application  in  the 
practice  school.  Dr.  Eein  delivers  lectures  on  theo- 
retical and  practical  pedagogy,  and  those  who  attend 
these  lectures  may  visit  the  practice  school  to  ob- 
serve instruction  and  to  listen  to  the  criticisms. 
Those  who  wish  may  also  take  charge  of  two  or 
three  lessons  during  a  semester.  Each  lesson  must 
be  carefully  planned  by  the  student  teacher,  revised 
after  criticism  by  the  seminary  teacher,  and  after 
the  exercise  is  concluded  the  whole  plan  and  execu- 
tion are  subjected  to  the  criticism  of  the  candidate 
himself,  of  the  critic  teacher,  and  of  the  student 
teachers  who  have  observed  the  instruction.  The 
leaders  of  this  seminary  strive  not  only  to  fit  the 
candidates  for  their  life-work,  but  they  aim  to  build 
up  a  more  solid  science  of  pedagogy.  The  plan  is 
thoroughly  in  accord  with  the  modern  laboratory 
methods  of  investigation  in  allied  subjects. 

For  the  practical  course  of  instruction  Professor 
Eichter  regards  the  following  formal  steps  as  in- 
dispensable :  Vorhild,  Anleitung^  SelbstUbinig,  Kritih 
(preparatory  exposition,  introduction,  self  practice, 
criticism).  In  addition  to  these  there  should  not  be 
lacking  companions  working  toward  similar  ends  in 
order  to  awaken  a  healthy  spirit  of  rivalry  for  excel- 


94     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

lence.  As  proper  material  for  class  instruction  in 
the  seminary  work  lie  selects,  for  the  first  work, 
German  in  Quarta.  Following  this,  Greek  in  Low- 
er Tertia  is  selected,  and  then  work  is  assigned 
in  Sexta.  Later  on  in  the  course  the  candidates 
are  left  more  to  themselves  for  the  selection  of 
work.  It,  however,  must  be  selected  so  as  to  be  con- 
tinuous with  the  work  of  the  regular  department 
teachers. 

Each  one  of  the  classes  (at  present  three  burgher- 
school  classes  and  one  gymnasial  class)  has  ten  pupils. 
Besides  the  practice  teachers,  there  are  three  regular 
department  teachers  who  are  responsible  for  the 
progress  of  the  classes. 

A  few  of  Jena's  variations  from  other  Prussian 
seminaries,  of  special  note,  are  summed  up  as  follows 
by  Professor  Fries :  *  1.  Candidates  visit  the  school 
museums  and  laboratories  under  competent  guid- 
ance to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  apparatus  and  appli- 
ances. 2.  They  are  given  for  a  certain  period  entire 
charge  of  a  backward  pupil,  or  of  one  who  has  for 
some  other  reasons  failed  to  pass  his  examinations. 
3.  Under  a  competent  drawing  teacher  they  receive 
instruction  in  perspective  and  map  drawing  to  in- 
sure capability  of  rapid  sketching  on  the  blackboard 
before  a  class.  They  lay  great  stress  on  making  the 
instruction  "  anschaulich."  f  4.  In  certain  cases  the 
seminary  year  is  allowed  to  count  as  one  year  of  the 
trial  year  {Prohejahr). 

*  Vorbildung  fiir  das  hohere  Lehramt. 

f  That  is,  made  plain  to  the  senses  through  drawings  and 
objective  teaching. 


TEACHERS.  95 

Tlie  Seminary  at  Lei^Jsic. — Leipsic,  though  not 
the  first  to  establish  pedagogical  courses,  has  been 
during  the  last  twenty-five  years  one  of  the  most 
active  pedagogical  centres.  For  some  years,  during 
the  labours  of  Masius  and  Ziller,  it  was  thoroughly 
Herbartian.  Not  only  did  these  men  herald  Her- 
bartian  pedagogy,  but  Professor  Drobisch,  who  lec- 
tured on  philosophy,  was  one  of  the  best  and  ablest 
supporters  of  Herbartian  psychology  and  philoso- 
phy ;  Prof.  Ludwig  Striimpell,  a  disciple  of  Herbart, 
was  for  some  time  lecturer  on  pedagogy.  He  was  a 
pioneer  in  the  attempt  to  place  pedagogy  upon  a 
psychological  basis.  His  book  on  psychological  ped- 
agogy is  a  masterful  attempt  to  place  pedagogy  upon 
a  sound  foundation.  In  a  supplement  it  contains 
one  of  the  first,  if  not  the  first,  attempts  at  a  sys- 
tematic study  of  children.  The  contribution  ante- 
dates Preyer's,  and  is  frequently  referred  to  in  Prey- 
er's  epoch-making  treatise. 

Probably  the  most  noted  of  all  Leipsic  peda- 
gogues was,  however,  Prof.  Tuiskon  Ziller.  His 
seminary,  a  private  institution,  was  grounded,  like 
the  one  at  Jena,  upon  the  Herbartian  pedagogy. 
His  field  of  investigation  covered  elementary  as  well 
as  higher  education.  His  seminary,  divided  into  the 
'•'■Theoreticiim,  PraTctihiim,  and  /Confer en z,"  did  much 
to  extend  Herbartian  pedagogics.  He  laboured  faith- 
fully in  this  field  from  1861  until  his  death  in  1882. 

At  the  present  time  Leipsic  gives  more  courses 
in  pedagogy  and  allied  topics  than  any  other  German 
university.  Its  professors  are  not  disciples  of  any 
particular  school,  but  are  thoroughly  eclectic  in  their 


96     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

system  of  instruction.  Prof.  Johannes  Volkelt,  a 
highly  gifted  man  and  a  writer  of  considerable  note 
in  the  field  of  philosophy  and  aesthetics,  is  head  j^ro- 
fessor  in  the  department  of  pedagogy.  During  one 
semester  of  each  year  he  lectures  on  pedagogy,  and 
during  the  other  semester  on  jBsthetics.  Besides 
these  lectures  he  gives  short  courses  upon  particular 
periods  of  philosophy.  He  conducts  a  philosoph- 
ical-pedagogical seminary  one  evening  each  week 
during  one  semester  and  a  seminary  on  selected 
topics  in  aesthetics  during  the  second  semester.  His 
popularity  draws  large  crowds  to  his  lecture  rooms 
and  his  seminaries. 

Two  pedagogical  seminaries  at  Leipsic  offer 
abundant  opportunities  for  observation,  criticism, 
and  j)ractice  work  in  teaching.  One,  under  the  lead- 
ership of  Professor  Hoffman,  a  theologian,  who  has 
been  connected  with  the  university  many  years,  is 
more  especially  adapted  to  the  needs  of  future  teach- 
ers in  the  burgher  schools.  The  course  consists  of 
observational  work  and  a  chance  to  teach  under 
guidance  in  all  grades  of  schools.  Under  leadership 
of  the  professor,  students  visit  once  each  week  some 
grade  of  school.  The  visits  include  the  district 
schools  {Bezirksclitden),  burgher  schools,  higher 
burgher  schools,  gymnasia,  institutions  for  the  blind, 
schools  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  schools  for  Aveak- 
minded  children,  schools  for  incorrigibles,  business 
schools,  and  technical  schools.  The  student  may  also 
extend  his  visits  to  such  other  schools  as  interest  him 
specially.  For  those  who  are  sufficiently  grounded 
in  pedagogics,  arrangements  are  made  whereby  can- 


TEACHERS.  97 

didates  may  conduct  classes.  This  is  done  under 
guidance  and  criticism.  After  carefully  planned 
work  the  candidate  conducts  the  class  under  the 
supervision  of  the  regular  teacher  and  selected 
critics.  The  lesson  is  then  thoroughly  discussed 
in  all  its  relations,  and  after  a  time  it  is  repeated 
in  another  parallel  class.  In  this  way  each  one  may 
become  acquainted  with  the  theories  regarding  the 
work,  become  a  critical  observer,  and,  lastly,  learn  to 
apply  the  principles  learned. 

In  the  lower  grades  the  chief  stress  is  laid  upon 
the  formal  part  of  instruction,  in  the  middle  stage 
the  form  and  content  are  to  be  dealt  with  more 
together,  and  in  the  higher  classes  the  content  of 
the  lesson  is  to  receive  the  chief  stress.  The  semi- 
nary is  more  especially  designed  for  future  candidates 
for  position  in  the  burgher  schools. 

Another  seminary  at  Leipsic  in  connection  with 
the  Eoyal  Gymnasium  is  designated  by  the  Saxon 
kingdom  as  a  practical  seminary  for  candidates  of 
the  higher  (secondary)  schools.  The  seminary  is 
under  the  supervision  of  the  gymnasium  director 
(Prof.  Dr.  Eichter),  who  also  has  the  rank  and  title 
of  assistant  professor  in  the  university.  He  delivers 
some  lectures  in  the  university.  As  assistants,  there 
must  be  two  other  gymnasial  teachers  to  supervise 
the  work  in  their  particular  departments.  The 
seminary  is  so  conducted  that  three  divisions  are 
made  according  to  subjects.  The  three  groups  usu- 
ally represented  are  ancient  languages,  under  the 
director  ;  modern  languages  under  the  direction  of 
Dr.  Martin  Hartmann ;  and  mathematics  and  natural 


98     SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

science,  under  the  guidance  of  Prof.  Dr.  Lehmann. 
The  exercises  of  the  seminary  consist  of  model  les- 
sons, the  first  lesson  of  each  semester  being  given  by 
the  teacher  in  charge,  and  the  rest  by  the  students 
{Praktikanten).  The  students  are  not  compelled  to 
give  lessons,  but  it  is  to  their  advantage  to  do  so, 
since  the  report  of  their  work  is  to  be  handed  to  the 
Minister  of  Instruction  to  count  on  their  seminary 
year,  when  they  come  to  apply  for  a  position.  Only 
those  students  who  have  been  in  university  attend- 
ance four  or  more  semesters,  or  those  who  have  pur- 
sued their  sjDccial  subjects  for  some  years,  are  allowed 
to  become  active  members  of  the  seminary.*  Others 
may  be  allowed  to  attend,  but  only  as  listeners  {Zu- 
hbrer).  In  all  cases  students  must  receive  permis- 
sion from  the  director  and  the  special  department 
teachers.  All  members  are  expected  to  attend  the 
regular  meetings  of  their  special  division  in  the  sem- 
inary, and  are  earnestly  requested  to  visit  the  school 
work  in  their  own  and  other  departments. 

After  the  first  lesson  in  each  semester  the  classes 
are  placed  in  charge  of  the  student  teachers.  They 
are  at  liberty  to  select  a  theme  suitable  for  presenta- 
tion in  some  one  of  the  nine  classes  of  the  gymnasia, 
which  they  must  announce  to  the  deiDartment 
teacher  for  his  approval.  He  avoids  the  duplication 
of  lessons,  either  given  by  the  regular  teacher  or  in 
seminary  meetings,   and    determines    whether    the 

*  This  provision  is  made  especially  for  people's  school  teach- 
ers who  wish  to  pursue  special  branches,  and  thus  become 
enabled  to  take  examination  for  positions  in  the  secondary 

schools. 


TEACHERS.  99 

selected  theme  is  suitable  for  the  class  chosen  by 
the  student.  The  intention  is  to  make  the  lesson 
profitable  to  the  class  which  acts  as  a  practice  class. 
The  theme  determined  upon,  the  student  teacher 
must  submit  a  completely  detailed  plan  of  the  lesson 
to  be  presented  ;  not  a  mere  outline  is  accepted,  but 
the  objects  expected  to  be  obtained,  and  the  means 
of  attaining  them,  the  division  into  "  introduction," 
"  body  of  the  lesson,"  "  conclusion,"  "  review,"  must 
all  be  indicated  with  great  exactness.  Even  the 
questions  that  are  to  be  put  before  the  class  are 
worked  out  beforehand.  When  the  candidate  ap- 
pears before  the  class  he  is  expected  to  be  fully  pre- 
pared at  all  points  with  the  subject  matter  and 
method  of  his  lesson.  For  example,  in  the  case  of 
instruction  in  modern  foreign  languages,  the  candi- 
date not  infrequently  has  his  questions  and  sen- 
tences and  illustrative  lines  all  by  heart.  After  the 
written  report  is  handed  in,  the  candidate  has  a 
conference  with  the  department  teacher  concerning 
the  proposed  work.  Errors  of  method  are  pointed 
out,  the  theoretical  and  practical  pedagogical  aspects 
are  carefully  considered,  division  and  amount  of 
work  discussed,  etc.  After  criticism,  the  candidate 
reviews  and  corrects  the  work  before  presentation  to 
the  class.  Before  giving  the  lesson  the  candidate  is 
expected  to  visit  the  class  he  is  to  teach,  and  other 
parallel  classes  as  many  times  as  possible,  to  become 
better  acquainted  with  the  class  and  with  the  work 
to  be  given. 

For  practice  classes,  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four 
pupils  of  the  gymnasial  class  in  which  the  instruc- 


100    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

tion  is  to  be  given  are  selected  by  the  department 
teacher.  The  instructors  aim  to  select  from  the 
classes  those  of  average  ability,  not  taking  the  best, 
nor,  on  the  other  hand,  the  poorest.  At  one  exercise 
which  the  writer  witnessed,  the  rector  selected  half 
of  the  practice  class  from  the  brightest  pupils,  and 
the  other  half  from  the  dullest.  The  exercise  was 
one  not  requiring  close  analysis  and  hard  thinking, 
but  was  largely  mechanical.  When  the  exercise  was 
concluded  the  rector  raised  the  question  among  the 
observers  as  to  whether  differences  in  ability  had 
been  detected.  The  fact  had  not  been  noticed,  and 
the  rector  proceeded  to  explain  how  dull  pupils 
could  appear  just  as  quick  in  purely  mechanical 
work  as  the  most  perceiving,  while,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  superior  strength  of  keener  pupils  was 
often  unnoticed  by  the  teacher  who  did  not  fully 
appreciate  degrees  of  difficulty  in  lessons. 

The  seminary  possesses  a  library  of  pedagogical 
works,  though  it  is  limited  in  size,  to  which  students 
have  access.  The  library  facilities,  apart  from  this, 
are  excellent  in  Leipsic.  Besides  the  general  uni- 
versity library  and  a  special  library  in  the  university, 
which  contains  all  the  most  important  pedagogical 
works  in  German  and  French,  there  is  the  library 
known  as  the  "  Comenius  Stiftung,"  containing  a 
rich  collection  of  pedagogical  material.  This  latter, 
however,  is  open  only  on  two  afternoons  in  each  week, 
and  is  in  such  incommodious  quarters,  with  insuffi- 
cient number  of  attendants  and  poorly  arranged  cata- 
logues, that  it  is  not  so  useful  as  it  might  be.  Its  use 
is  limited  mainly  to  teachers  of  the  people's  schools. 


TEACHERS.  101 

To  further  the  influence  of  the  seminary,  a 
certain  number  of  stipendia,  or  scholarships,  arc 
awarded  to  deserving  and  capable  candidates,  resi- 
dents of  Saxony.  These  are  not  large  in  amount,  but 
they  aid  a  good  many  needy  students. 

Strasburg. — The  seminary  in  connection  with  the 
Strasburg  University,  although  discontinued  since 
1893,  deserves  mention  because  of  its  excellent  ac- 
complishment under  the  direction  of  Professor  Zie- 
gler,  a  well-known  pedagogical  writer  and  university 
professor  of  philosophy  and  pedagogy.  This  semi- 
nary differed  from  all  others  except  Jena  in  having  a 
sort  of  model  class  for  whose  advancement  the  direc- 
tor and  his  assistants  were  entirely  responsible.  In- 
stead of  selecting  from  gymnasial  classes  from  time 
to  time.  Professor  Ziegler  selected  eight  or  ten  pu- 
pils from  Tertia  in  the  gymnasium.  Having  entire 
charge  over  them,  a  greater  personal  interest  was 
taken  in  the  pupils  than  would  be  the  case  were  they 
under  their  direction  at  stated  intervals  only.  In 
connection  with  the  practical  phase,  Professor  Zie- 
gler gave  lectures  on  the  history  of  pedagogy,  pay- 
ing special  attention  to  such  authors  as  Locke, 
Rousseau,  Comenius,  and  Herbart.  Discussions  in 
connection  with  the  lessons  given  and  with  practi- 
cal problems  were  carried  on  as  in  the  other  semina- 
ries. Willmann's  Didaktik,  Schiller's  Handbuch  der 
Padagogik,  and  Ziegler's  own  Handbuch  der  Piida- 
gogik  furnished  much  of  the  material  for  discus- 
sions.* 

*  Fries,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fiir  das  Lehramt,  p.  41 
et  seq. 


102    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

Heidelberg. — Heidelberg  luis  maintained  a  peda- 
gogical seminary  since  1809.  It  was  first  organized 
by  the  well-known  author  Chr.  Schwarze,  and  is  at 
present  under  the  charge  of  the  gymnasium  director 
and  university  Professor  Uhlig.  The  students  listen 
to  lectures  on  pedagogy  in  the  university,  and  may 
enter  the  seminary  only  after  being  in  attendance  at 
the  university  for  two  years.  The  order  of  observa- 
tion, instruction,  and  criticism  is  so  similar  to  that 
offered  at  Leipsic  and  other  university  seminaries 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  give  it  in  detail.  The  chief 
difference  noticeable  is  in  the  distribution  and  order 
of  classes  given  in  charge  of  candidates.  First  a  mid- 
dle class  of  the  gymnasium  is  taken,  next  a  lower  one, 
and  lastly  the  highest  or  Prima.  For  example,  the 
students  expecting  to  teach  classical  philology  might 
take  classes  in  the  following  order :  Csesar  or  Ovid 
in  Upper  Tertia,  Xenophon  in  Lower  Secunda, 
Greek  grammar  in  Lower  Tertia,  history  in  Quarta, 
Latin  in  Quinta,  history  in  Upper  Secunda,  and  at 
last  Sophocles,  Cicero,  Plato,  or  Demosthenes  in 
Prima.* 

General  Note  to  Section  "  C." 

As  some  of  the  points  to  be  noticed  by  student 
observers  in  visiting  a  class,  Schiller,  of  Giessen, 
recommended  the  following  :  f 

1.  Selection  and  disposition  of  the  material  in 
itself  and  in  relation  to  the  disposable  time. 

*  Fries,  Die  Vorbildung  der  Lehrer  fiir  das  Lehramt,  p.  28 
et  seq. 

f  Padagogische  Seminarien,  p.  138 ;  also  Fries,  Die  Vorbil- 
dunar  der  Lehrer  fiir  das  Leliramt. 


TEACHERS.  103 

2.  Treatment :  (a)  The  three  teaching  activities  ; 
(h)  questioning  with  special  consideration  of  concen- 
tration. 

3.  Conduct  and  manner  of  the  teacher  (beginning 
and  close  of  the  lesson  ;  management  of  the  class  by 
attention  and  by  the  eye ;  correct  tone  of .  voice, 
speaking,  reading,  questions,  attention  to  errors  of 
pupils  ;  proper  selection  of  resting  point ;  occupa- 
tion of  entire  class ;  control  toward  close  of  the  les- 
son ;  were  all  pupils  thoughtful  about  each  question  ? 
chorus  answers,  etc.). 

4.  Eesults  as  a  whole  :  What  Avas  gained  by  the 
lesson  ?    Was  an  advance  observable  ? 

Frick,  of  Halle,  gave  the  following  plan  for  the 
observation  of  a  lesson  :  * 

I.  Selection  and  arrangement  of  material. 

1.  Was  the  kind  and  amount  of  the  teaching  ma- 
terial in  right  proportion  to  the  given  time  ? 

2.  Was  the  material  sufficiently  sifted  and  cor- 
rectly divided  ? 

3.  Was  the  disposition  of  the  material  clear  and 
comprehensive  ? 

II.  Method  of  procedure. 

1.  Was  a  well-planned  and  suitable  arrangement 
of  the  teaching  activities  followed  ?  namely : 

a.  Preparation  for  the  new  by  connecting  with 
the  old  and  well  known. 

b.  Elaboration  ( Vertieftmg,  Begriindiing,  Riich- 
hlick,  Ziisammenfassung). 

c.  Presentation  or  development  of  the  new. 

d.  Application  {EiniXhung^  Einprdgung). 

*  Paila<rotrische  Abhandluntran,  ii,  o51. 


104   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

2.  Was  the  lesson  "  anscluiulich  "presented,  logic- 
ally developed,  systematically  elaborated,  thoroughly 
applied,  and  indelibly  impressed  ? 

3.  Was  the  questioning  good,  the  application  of 
the  questions  good  (especially  the  questions  for  con- 
centration), and  equally  divided  among  the  pupils? 

III.  Personality  of  the  teacher. 

How  did  the  teacher  conduct  himself  ?  Was  he 
brisk  yet  cool, full  of  life,  inspiring?  Did  he  govern 
the  class  by  his  glance,  his  strength,  and  warmth  of 
tone  ?  Was  his  speech  correct,  well  articulated,  clear, 
plain,  and  economical  ?  His  reading  a  model  for  his 
pupils  ?  The  entire  conduct  and  attitude  commend- 
able? 

IV.  Discipline  [ZucJit). 

Was  the  entire  class  constantly  busy  ?  Did  the 
teacher  hold  the  attention  and  sympathy,  in  general, 
at  equal  tension  ?  Did  he  understand  how  to  renew 
and  revive  these  through  external  means,  such  as 
pauses  in  the  work,  having  the  class  stand,  chorus 
reciting,  etc.  ?  Had  he  eye  and  ear  for  the  failures 
and  mistakes  of  pupils,  or  were  many  instances  un- 
observed, others  passed  in  silence  ? 

V.  Entire  results  and  impressions  of  the  lesson. 

Was  there  observable  a  definite  gain  for  the  pu- 
pils ?  Was  there  a  perceptible  advance,  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher,  in  independent  recognition  and  care- 
ful observance  of  the  suggestions  given  ? 

(D)   Courses  in  Pedagogy  offered  in  the  Universities. 

Below  are  indicated  the  various  courses  in  peda- 
gogy in  all  the  German  universities,  taken  from  the 


TEACHERS.  105 

various  announcements  of  courses  (  Verzeichnisse)  for 
the  winter  and  the  summer  semesters  of  1896-'97.* 
(The  figures  refer  to  the  nximber  of  hours  weekly  de- 
voted to  the  lecture  or  the  seminary  exercise :  W. 
winter;  S.,  summer.) 

Berlin.     W.  Pedagogy,  4  ;  Paulsen. 

The  psychological  basis  of  pedagogy,  1 ;  concern- 
ing academic  studies,  1 ;  Steinthal.  Summer  semes- 
ter, none. 

Bonn.  W.  Philosophy  and  pedagogics,  2  ;  Meyer. 
Pedagogy,  3 ;  Bender.  S.  Philosophy  and  pedago- 
gics, 1 ;  Meyer.  Humanistic  and  realistic  education, 
1 ;  Wentscher. 

Braunsberg.     W.  Pedagogy,  2  ;  Krause.     S.  none. 

Breslau.  W.  none.  S.  Pedagogics,  2 ;  Baeumker. 
History  of  pedagogy,  2  ;  Ebbinghaus. 

Erlangen.     W.  none.    S.  none. 

Freiburg.  AY.  General  theory  of  instruction,  1 ; 
discussion  of  pedagogical  questions,  1 ;  exercise  in 
teaching  in  the  gymnasia,  1 ;  Ziirn.  S.  History  of 
pedagogy  from  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages,  with 
special  attention  to  the  present,  and  giving  particu- 
lar consideration  to  the  growth  of  pedagogical  theo- 
ries, 1 ;  discussion  of  pedagogical  questions,  7  ;  exer- 
cise in  teaching  in  the  gymnasium,  1 ;  Ziirn. 

Gottingen.  W.  none.  S.  History  of  pedagogy,  2  ; 
exercises  in  instruction  for  those  who  intend  to  teach 
philosophic  propaedeutics,  1 ;  Baumann. 

Giessen.  W.  General  didactics,  3 ;  Schiller.  S. 
none. 

*  An  examination  of  the  course  oflfered  in  1898-'99  reveals 
vciy  fow  chancres. 


IOC    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Greifswuld.  W.  History  of  (ircifswaldchurcliiuid 
schools,  2  ;  Pyl,    Ethics  and  pedagogics,  4 ;  Kelimkc. 

Ilalle.  W.  Pedagogy,  3  ;  Uphues.  S.  Ilistory  of 
pedagogy  and  instruction,  especially  in  Germany 
since  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  3 ; 
Erdmann. 

Heidelberg.  AY.  Disputation  on  pedagogical  ques- 
tions, with  discussions  relating  to  selected  sections 
from  Ilerbart  and  other  pedagogical  writers,  1 ;  prac- 
tice in  instructing  in  the  gymnasial  subjects,  1 ; 
Uhlig.  S.  The  present  condition  of  higher  instruc- 
tion in  the  civilized  European  countries,  with  special 
attention  to  the  disputed  questions  {Streitfragen)  of 
the  present,  3 ;  criticisms  and  readings  of  selected 
passages  from  classical  pedagogical  authors,  1 ;  exer- 
cises in  gymnasial  instruction,  1 ;  Uhlig. 

Jena.  W.  System  of  pedagogy,  4 ;  pedagogical 
seminary  with  practice  in  instruction  in  the  seminary 
school.  Rein.  History  of  pedagogy,  3 ;  pedagogical 
discussions,  2 ;  Stoy.  S.  General  didactics,  1 ;  peda- 
gogical seminary  with  practice  in  the  seminary  school, 
1 ;  Rein.  General  philosophy  of  pedagogy,  3  ;  peda- 
gogical discussions  relating  to  points  in  the  lectures, 
2;  Stoy. 

Kiel.     W.  Pedagogy,  2 ;  Adickes.     S.  none. 

Konigsberg.     W.  none.     S.  none. 

Leipsic.  AV.  Exposition,  criticism,  and  extension 
of  the  Herbart-Ziller  system  of  pedagogy,  3 ;  Barth. 
Selected  questions  from  gymnasial  ]3edagogy,  2 ; 
Richter.  Pedagogy  and  its  history,  5 ;  Hoffman. 
Philosophical  -  pedagogical  seminary  :  criticism  of 
Schleiermacher's  pedagogy,  1-^;  Volkelt.     Pedagog- 


TEACHERS.  107 

ical  seminary :  visits  to  all  grades  aud  classes  of 
schools,  with  practice  work  for  the  advanced  students, 
1  hour  visiting,  5  hours  practice ;  Hoffman.  Practi- 
cal pedagogical  seminary  :  observation,  practice,  and 
criticism  in  gymnasial  instruction,  4  ;  Richter,  Hart- 
mann,  Lehmann.  School  diseases  and  school  hy- 
giene, 1 ;  Lange.  Physiology  and  dietetics  of  the 
human  body,  especially  for  teachers,  4 ;  Wenzel.  S. 
History  of  pedagogy  since  the  Renaissance,  4 ;  Yol- 
kelt.  The  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  higher 
school  positions,  with  introduction  to  the  history  of 
the  profession,  1 ;  Richter.  Christian  religion  for 
those  preparing  to  become  religious  teachers  in  sec- 
ondary schools,  2 ;  Hoffman.  Philosophical-peda- 
gogical seminary :  exercises  on  aesthetics  in  connec- 
tion with  reading  of  selected  poems  of  Schiller,  1^  ; 
Volkelt.  Pedagogical  seminary :  discussion  of  se- 
lected themes  from  the  history  of  didactics,  1^ ; 
Barth.  School  diseases  and  school  hygiene,  1 ; 
Lange.  The  two  practical  seminaries  as  in  the  win- 
ter semester. 

Marburg.  W.  none.  S.  History  of  pedagogy,  2 ; 
Natorp.  Discussions  relating  to  the  history  of  peda- 
gogy, 1 ;  Natorp. 

Munich.     W.  none.     S.  none. 

Minister.  W.  Psychological  and  pedagogical 
seminary,  1.  S.  Theory  of  gymnasial  pedagogy,  4 ; 
Miiller. 

Rostock.     W.  none.     S.  none. 

Strasburg.     W.  none.     S.  none. 

Tiibingen.     W.  Practice  in  teaching  philology  in 
the  gymnasium,  2 ;  Mager.     S.  none. 
9 


108    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

AViirzburg.  W.  none.  S,  Pedagogy  and  didactics 
as  a  system  of  educational  instruction,  in  connection 
'  with  the  history  of  pedagogy,  4 ;  Grasberger. 

The  number  of  courses  on  pedagogy  given  in 
German  universities  is  not  so  great  as  one  would 
suppose,  when  the  pedagogical  renown  of  the  country 
is  taken  into  consideration.  Where  the  office  of  the 
teacher  requires  such  thorough  preparation  it  would 
be  natural  to  suppose  that  all  the  universities  would 
offer  complete  facilities  for  the  study  of  educa- 
tional problems.  All  the  universities  have  numer- 
ous courses  in  pure  philosophy,  and  usually  there 
are  psychological  courses  offered.  A  number  have 
psychological  laboratories  for  the  experimental  study 
of  problems.  A  few  have  made  some  experimen- 
tal study  of  children  and  of  educational  psycho- 
logical topics.  But  nearly  all  the  work  along  the 
line  of  child  study  has  been  done  by  physicians 
rather  than  by  psychologists  or  professors  of  peda- 
gogy. Little  of  the  modern  work  of  this  nature  has 
emanated  from  the  universities.  Although  the  study 
of  philosophy  is  earnestly  and  vigorously  carried  on, 
and  a  large  amount  of  practice  is  exacted  before  a 
candidate  is  permitted  to  hold  a  permanent  position, 
there  is  not  the  amount  of  activity  that  one  might 
expect  along  the  line  of  experimental  education  and 
child  study.  The  deeply  scientific  experimental 
psychology,  which  has  some  of  the  most  illustrious 
exponents  in  Germany,  is  not  wielding  the  influence 
it  might,  and  that  it  is  exerting  in  America,  in 
the  study  of  educational  problems.  Pedagogy 
nowhere  has  received  such  thorough  and  scientific 


TEACHERS.  109 

treatment  as  in  Germany,  but  it  has  been  discussed 
from  the  logical  and  religious-moral  standpoints  in 
the  main.  The  Herbartian  idea  of  moral-ethical- 
religioiis  training  has  received  exhaustive  consider- 
ation. But  efforts  to  experimentally  determine 
methods  of  procedure,  capabilities  of  pupils,  educa- 
tional values,  means  toward  ends,  and  many  other 
educational  problems  susceptible  of  experimental 
study  have  received  little  attention  at  the  hands  of 
either  psychologists  or  pedagogues.  The  former 
have  been  too  engrossed  in  patiently  and  laboriously 
studying  details  from  a  disinterested  point  of  view, 
while  the  latter  do  not  seem  to  have  become  imbued 
with  this  phase  of  the  great  work  of  which  Herbart 
was  the  pioneer  and  pathfinder.  Both  have  failed 
to  accomplish  what  it  seems  true  disciples  of  the 
great  master  ought  to  do — the  pedagogues  to  recog- 
nise the  merits  of  exact  scientific  experimental 
methods  of  psychological  investigation,  and  the  psy- 
chologists to  make  useful  application  of  their  acqui- 
sitions. True,  a  few  like  Lange,  Preyer,  Striimpell, 
Ebbinghaus,  Schumann,  Miiller,  and  others,  most  of 
them  in  recent  years,  have  made  initial  movements, 
directly  or  indirectly,  toward  the  application  of  ex- 
perimental methods  in  education ;  but  the  activities 
in  assiduously  investigating  educational  problems 
manifested  in  America  may  well  be  carefully  noted 
even  by  so  great  an  educational  country  as  Germany, 
Avhere  it  has  been  said  that  all  the  world  goes  to 
school.  There  may  be  some  cause  for  looking  on 
too  much  unrest  and  experiment  in  education  as  a 
sign  of  instability  and  as  a  lack  of  continuity  of  pur- 


110  SECONDARY  SCnOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

pose ;  but  when  wisely  and  thoughtrully  executed, 
unceasing  agitation,  premeditated  and  scientifically 
carried  on,  can  not  fail  to  produce  a  more  highly 
organized  and  efficient  educational  system. 

In  many  cases  German  pedagogy  is  based  upon 
traditions  and  hypotheses  rather  than  principles 
evolved  from  experience.  If  such  questions  as  the 
possibility  and  advisability  of  the  higher  education 
of  women,  and  the  possibility  of  non-classical  stu- 
dents being  able  to  profit  by  study  in  all  or  any  of 
the  university  faculties,  had  been  given  a  test,  rather 
than  negatived  upon  purely  historical  grounds — in 
themselves  hypothetical — there  is  little  doubt  as  to 
the  results.  AVith  Frl.  Helene  Lange  we  can  well 
say  that  what  Germany  needs  in  settling  the  woman 
question  is  not  logic  but  experiment. 

In  substantiation  of  the  views  above  expressed  a 
quotation  from  Professor  Eein,  of  Jena,  which  was 
published  in  the  Deutsche  Kevue,  September,  1895,  is 
pertinent :  "  The  ancient  contrast  between  plan  and 
execution  makes  itself  felt  also  in  the  field  of  edu- 
cation. In  order  to  overcome  it,  modern  pedagogy 
has  turned  toward  the  problem  concerning  the  best 
professional  preparation  of  educators  and  teachers, 
a  question  which  the  old  generation  viewed  with 
supreme  indifference.  '  Only  get  knowledge,  and  the 
gift  of  imparting  it  will  come  by  itself.  Only  have 
spirit,  and  you  will  know  how  to  awaken  spirit.' 
These  and  other  similar  sentiments  that  arose  either 
from  boundless  pride  or  criminal  frivolity  were 
heard.  However,  the  needs  of  the  time  make  it 
imperative  to  call  into  existence  institutions  which 


TEACHERS.  HI 

will  promote  the  preparation  of  teachers.  In  estab- 
lishing such  institutions  pedagogical  considerations 
have  not  always  been  heeded.  It  has  been  overlooked 
that  the  centres  of  intellectual  culture,  our  univer- 
sities, should  by  right  also  undertake  the  task  of  pre- 
paring the  educators  of  the  people,  who  can  not  only 
comprehend  the  entire  organization  of  our  educa- 
tional system,  but  also  perform  the  detail  work  of 
education  with  artistic  skill  and  devotion.  A  false 
notion  of  the  object  of  our  universities  and  their 
duties  seems  to  dim  our  eyes.  In  the  United  States 
the  universities  are  mvicli  less  prejudiced  in  this  as 
in  other  respects.  It  will  not  take  long  for  them  to 
surpass  us,  as  they  are  establishing  pedagogical 
chairs  that  will  consciously,  and  with  well-directed 
efforts,  influence  the  development  of  the  entire  edu- 
cational system  of  the  Union.  That  is  the  point 
where  we  make  a  mistake.  If,  however,  we  notice 
the  progress  made  in  this  respect  by  modern  peda- 
gogy in  Germany  over  the  views  of  former  times,  we 
may  entertain  the  hope  that  the  future  will  supply 
that  for  which  the  present  lacks  comprehension." 
(Translation  as  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  1894-'95,  i,  329.) /^nd  of  a  pos- 
sible danger  to  America  in  imitating  German  meth- 
ods the  Educational  Review  says  :  "  It  is  the  examjile 
of  Germany,  so  helpful  in  many  directions,  so  hurtful 
in  others,  that  has  led  us  astray.  In  most  German 
universities  we  find  a  professor  (very  often  a  teacher  of 
philosophy  or  theology)  discoursing  learnedly  '  Ueber 
Piidagogik,'  and  we  have  imitated  his  example,  for- 
getting in  our  admiration  of  his  Wissenschaft  that 


112  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

the  besetting  sin  of  the  Germans  is  in  their  worship 
of  thought  to  the  neglect  of  action  and  reality."  * 

4.  Teachers'  Official  Titles. 
Titles  play  a  much  greater  and  more  signifi- 
cant role  among  German  teachers  than  among 
American  teachers.  This  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
in  a  land  where  a  distinctive  caste  system  reigns. 
In  all  classes  of  public  offices  position  is  designated 
very  definitely  by  the  title  one  is  permitted  to  use. 
While  in  the  United  States  there  are  all  sorts  and 
grades  of  presidents,  professors,  assistants,  directors, 
etc.,  the  titles  having  no  uniform  significance,  in 
Germany  all  those  with  given  titles  occupy  equal 
rank  in  the  state,  and  in  general  throughout  the 
empire.  Within  the  same  state  the  comi^ensation 
received  by  all  officials  having  the  same  title  is 
essentially  the  same  at  the  same  periods  of  service. 
While  there  are  all  grades  of  individual  capabilities 
and  capacities  in  Germany  as  everywhere,  yet  the 
same  title  usually  is  evidence  of  exactly  similar  con- 
ditions and  exactions  imposed  upon  the  person  who 
is  permitted  to  use  the  title.  There  are  not,  as  with 
us,  doctors  of  medicine,  who  have  received  their  di- 
plomas after  two  years  of  five  or  six  months'  attend- 
ance upon  lectures  of  greatly  varying  standards, 
without  even  a  good  common-school  education 
for  a  foundation,!  side  by  side  with  others  who  have 

*  Educational  Review,  xiv,  3. 

f  It  is  only  just  to  note  that  standards  in  medical  colleges  in 
America  are  being  raised  very  rapidly.  All  reputable  institu- 
tions have  now  three-year  or  four-year  courses. 


TEACHERS.  113 

taken  a  full  college  course  as  preparatory,  and  have 
supplemented  this  by  four  full  years  of  purely  tech- 
nical work,  and  yet  all  bearing  the  same  title  as  in- 
signia of  fitness  for  performance  of  the  same  grade 
of  work.  In  the  eyes  of  the  world  they  are  equal ; 
the  same  might  be  said  of  law,  theology,  and  teach- 
ing. There  are  all  grades  of  acquirements  for  the 
same  nominal  accomplishments.  These  facts  may 
be  cited  incidentally,  as  some,  perhaps  the  most  jwo- 
lific,  of  the  causes  tending  to  bring  our  educational 
and  professional  callings  into  disrepute  both  at  home 
and  abror.d.  Although  the  intelligent  discounte- 
nance these  methods,  and  understand  the  real  condi- 
tions, yet  people  are  prone  to  generalize,  and  that,  too, 
from  extreme  cases.  In  this  direction,  although  much 
has  been  done  to  stamp  out  dilettanteism  by  strict 
legislation,  yet  there  is  need  of  abundant  vigorous 
measures  in  order  to  insure  Justice  to  all  concerned. 
In  Germany,  when  a  gymnasium  director  or  a 
real-school  director  is  mentioned,  one  understands  it 
to  mean  a  person  in  charge  of  an  institution  doing 
a  definite  amount  of  work  :  only  a  person  of  a  definite 
minimum  of  attainments  could  be  in  charge.  So, 
also,  Oberlehrer,  or  head  teacher,  means  one  who  has 
climbed  a  definite  distance  up  the  ladder  of  progress. 
With  us,  when  a  high-school  principal  is  mentioned, 
unless  his  school  is  definitely  known,  no  accurate  idea 
is  conveyed.  It  may  be  a  principal  capable  of  taking 
charge  of  a  Boston  high  school,  or  a  small  two  years' 
course  high  school  in  Iowa.  The  title  "  professor  " 
is  also  applied  variously  to  the  village  schoolmaster 
and  to  the  profound  scholar  in  the  university. 


114    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Since  the  middle  ages  the  various  titles  of  rector, 
director,  prorector,  conrector,  subconrector  bacca- 
laureus,  collaborator,  co-operator,  collega,  cantor,  rec- 
tor-perpetuus,  historicus,  niusicus,  mathematicus, 
pfarrer,  tertius,  quartus,  etc.,  have  been  applied  to 
the  different  grades  of  instructors  in  the  secondary 
schools.  The  first  three  of  these  are  still  applied  to 
the  leaders  or  principals  of  secondary  institutions. 
In  Prussia  the  title  of  director  is  bestowed  upon 
those  in  charge  of  complete  gymnasia,  real-gymnasia, 
or  real-schools.  The  head  of  an  incomplete  institu- 
tion— i.  e.,  one  having  less  than  nine  years  in  its 
course — is  classed  as  rector.  This  title  applies  to 
those  in  charge  of  either  burgher  schools  or  of  peo- 
ple's schools.  In  Saxony  the  titles  are  used  in  the 
reverse  way,  the  head  of  a  gymnasium  being  termed 
the  rector,  while  the  head  of  a  real-school,  burgher- 
school,  or  people's  school  receives  the  appellation  of 
director.  The  usual  title  for  the  leader  of  a  gym- 
nasium is  rector,  while  the  leader  of  a  Latin  school 
is  termed  the  subrector.  Baden  variously  applies 
the  terms  director,  rector,  and  Vorstand  to  the 
leaders  of  any  secondary  school.  In  Wlirtemberg  the 
head  teacher  of  a  gymnasium,  real-gymnasium,  or 
real-school  with  ten  classes  is  usually  called  the  rec- 
tor, but  sometimes  the  Shidienrath  (adviser  of  stud- 
ies).    The  same  titles  are  given  in  Hesse. 

In  Prussia  the  title  OherleMer  (head  teacher) 
is  conferred  upon  those  who  have  fulfilled  the  con- 
ditions requisite  for  teaching  at  least  two  subjects 
in  Prima.  (See  topic  Examinations.)  Sometimes 
the  title  is  bestowed  upon  other  especially  distin- 


TEACHERS.  115 

guished  and  capable  instructors.  All  others  are 
called  ordeiitliche  Lehrer  (ordinary  teachers).  The 
title  professor  is  not  promiscuously  bestowed  upon 
teachers,  but  is  only  conferred  by  proper  authorities 
on  persons  of  definite  rank. 

In  Prussia  the  Minister  of  Instruction  is  em- 
powered to  grant  the  title  professor,  and  a  head 
teacher  receives  his  title  from  the  provincial  school 
board.  In  some  states.  Saxony,  for  example,  the 
King  only  confers  titles.  By  these  means  the  signifi- 
cance of  titles  is  preserved,  and  unfledged  youths 
and  half-prepared  dilettanti  are  kept  from  ranking 
with  the  worthy.  The  title  professor  is  conferred 
only  for  especial  merit  in  teaching,  or  for  distinc- 
tion gained  in  some  scholarly  work.  Professors  in 
the  secondary  schools  occupy  the  same  rank  in  the 
civil  service  as  university  professors.  If  in  a  uni- 
versity city,  the  secondary  school  professors  fre- 
quently give  lectures  on  pedagogics  or  didactics  in 
the  university.  Xow  and  then  specially  meritorious 
teachers  of  music  or  drawing  have  the  title  con- 
ferred upon  them,  but  it  is  usually  bestowed  only 
for  purely  scholarly  work  or  long  service.  To  make 
the  dignity  of  the  title  the  greater,  it  is  decreed  that 
only  one  third  of  all  the  head  teachers  may  be  raised 
to  the  rank  of  professor  at  a  given  time.  Only  one 
half  of  the  whole  number  of  professors  may  be 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  Riithe,  or  advisers,  of  the 
fourth  rank  in  the  civil  service.  *  This  rank  is  only 
attained  after  twelve  years  of  service. 

*  Many  officials  are  designated  as  a  Rath,  which  means  spe- 
cial counsellor  or  adviser. 


116    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

The  teachers  in  the  Latin  schools  in  Saxony  were 
formerly  designated,  according  to  the  classes  they 
taught,  as  sextiis,  quintus,  tcrtius,  etc.;  there  were 
also  collaborators  or  adjuncts.  At  the  present  time 
they  are  called  teacher  or  class  teacher.  Technical 
teachers  are  designated  as  gymnastic  teacher,  singing 
teacher,  etc.  The  one  next  in  service  to  the  rector 
is  called  the  conrector.  In  all  cases  the  title  "  head 
teacher  "  is  conferred  only  by  special  decree  from 
the  King.  Formerly  it  was  conferred  by  the  Cultus 
Minister,  and  only  after  four  years  of  service.  It  is 
seldom  given  to  those  in  the  real-schools.  The  title 
of  professor  is  given  to  the  head  teachers  longest  in 
the  service,  usually  to  from  three  to  eight  of  an  en- 
tire corps  of  from  twenty-five  to  forty  teachers.  It  is 
usually  conferred  for  time  of  service  rather  than  for 
especial  distinction  gained  in  scientific  investigation. 
It  seems  to  have  been  granted  sparingly  to  real- 
school  teachers,  since  only  five  of  the  twenty-three 
directors  in  1894  possessed  the  title. 

In  Saxony  teachers  are  not  state  officers  in  a  legal 
sense.  However,  the  rectors  and  professors  since 
1893  have  been  entitled  to  court  rank  [Hofrang). 
Professors  in  the  secondary  schools  have  the  same 
rank  as  assistant  professors  of  the  university. 

Baden  gives  all  teachers  having  permanent  po- 
sitions, and  who  have  served  a  sufficient  length  of 
time  as  teachers,  the  title  of  professor.  Those  with- 
out permanent  positions  are  termed  Praktikanten. 
The  teachers  in  the  Vorschulen  are  called  Reallehrer 
(teachers  of  science)  or  Volhsscliullelirer  (people's 
school   teacher),   while   the    religious   instructor  is 


TEACHERS.  1]7 

called  the  Religionslelirer  (teacher  of  religion).  Ac- 
cessistant  or  unpaid  supernumerary  is  the  title  ap- 
plied to  candidates  during  their  probationary  period 
in  Hesse.  After  completing  the  trial  service,  they 
receive  the  appellation  Lehramts  Accessor,  or  assist- 
ant teacher.  When  permanently  installed,  they  are 
called,  as  in  most  of  the  states,  gymnasium  teachers, 
real-gymnasium  teachers,  science  teachers,  etc.* 
Those  longest  in  the  service  are  termed  professors. 

In  Bavaria  the  ordinary  teachers  of  scientific 
branches  are  called  professors  or  teachers  in  the 
gymnasia,  and  Studienlelirer  (study  teacher  or  sub- 
ject teacher,  named  according  to  the  subject  taught, 
as  mathematics  or  drawing  teacher,  etc.)  in  the 
Latin  schools.  In  the  real-schools  they  are  called 
Reallehi'er  (science  teachers).  There  are  also  special 
teachers  of  religion,  gymnastics,  and  drawing.  For 
each  class  there  is  usually  in  all  states  one  teacher 
selected  as  a  special  overseer,  who  is  responsible  for 
the  discipline,  is  a  general  adviser,  and  also  teaches 
the  most  important  studies  connected  with  that 
period  of  the  course. 

Wiirtemberg  differs  from  most  of  the  other 
states  throughout  its  school  appointments,  and  is 
not  lacking  in  differences  in  teachers'  titles  as  well 
as  in  courses  of  study  and  other  arrangements.  (Cf. 
chapter   on   Courses   of   Study.)     The  teachers  are 


*  Any  branch  outside  of  th*  purely  technical  arts  of  draw- 
ing, singing,  I'eligion,  and  physical  training  is  termed  "  wis- 
senscliaftlich  "  in  Germany.  The  term  is  not  to  be  confounded 
with  natural  science. 


118    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

called  preceptors  and  teachers  in  the  begining  of 
their  career.  After  a  certain  term  of  service,  and 
also  for  especially  meritorious  service,  they  re- 
ceive the  title  of  head  preceptor  or  head  teacher. 
Mecklenburg  and  the  other  small  states  adopt 
the  same  nomenclature  as  Prussia  in  designating 
the  various  grades  of  teachers.  Prussia  serves  as  a 
model  to  these  states,  not  only  in  this,  but  in  many 
other  important  points  relating  to  school  organiza- 
tion. (Cf.  remarks  concerning  courses  of  study, 
and  also  concerning  students'  leaving  certificates 
and  qualifications  of  teachers.) 

5.   Teachers'  Tejsture  of  Office. 

In  the  United  States  the  average  official  life  of 
teachers  is  very  short,  only  a  few  years  at  most. 
With  women  the  average  length  of  time  that  they 
remain  in.  active  teaching  positions  does  not  exceed 
four  or  five  years.  The  teacher  is  also  in  many  sec- 
tions of  the  country  almost  as  much  of  an  itinerant  as 
are  Methodist  ministers.  Every  year  marks  changes 
in  the  personnel  of  teachers  in  every  part  of  the  coun- 
try. In  Wisconsin,  about  one  third  of  the  high-school 
principals  change  positions  every  year.  Each  suc- 
ceeding June  brings  a  new  exodus  of  teachers  de- 
parting for  new  fields  of  activity. 

In  Germany  the  case  is  far  different.  Teachers 
once  installed  are  fixtures  for  the  rest  of  their  ac- 
tive lives.  It  not  uncommonly  happens  that  the 
same  teacher  wields  the  rod  and  cares  for  the  men- 
tal welfare  of  father  and  son  or  mother  and  daughter ; 
and  even  to  instruct  three  generations  of  the  same 


TEACHERS. 


119 


household  is  uot  an  unchronicled  event  in  the  an- 
nals of  some  teachers'  lives. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  changes  that 
occurred  in  the  instructional  force  of  the  secondary 
schools  of  Prussia  for  the  four  years  from  1891  to 
1894:* 


Year. 

T..tal 
number 

Total 
number 

New 
teachers, 
first  posi- 
tion held. 

New 
teacb- 

from 
other 
places. 

Total 
number 

Called 

to 
other 

Choos- 
ing 
other 

Num- 
ber re- 

Num- 
ber re- 
tired on 

Num- 
ber 

positions. 

teachers. 

leaving. 

posi- 
tions. 

occupa- 
tions 

tiring. 

pen- 

deaths. 

1891 

7,1.59 

383 

374 

8 

1.51 

3 

30 

15 

54 

49 

1893 

7,336 

341 

336 

o 

179 

6 

40 

17 

61 

55 

18^3 

7,348 

298 

396 

2 

304 

3 

29 

6 

87 

79 

1894 

7,303 

333 

335 

8 

309 

2 

43 

8 

98 

59 

6.  Teachers'  Salaries.    • 

After  a  consideration  of  the  great  amount  of 
preparation  that  German  teachers  must  secure  be- 
fore being  admitted  to  the  examinations  for  posi- 
tions, the  severity  of  the  examinations  when  once 
admitted,  the  long  subsequent  training,  and,  finally, 
the  difficulty  experienced  in  securing  a  position,  the 
question  naturally  presents  itself :  What  remunera- 
tion do  they  get — are  the  salaries  adequate  to  warrant 
such  long  and  expensive  apprenticeship  ?  To  answer 
this  question,  which  may  have  occurred  to  the  reader, 
tables  are  subjoined  which  indicate  the  salaries  for 
different  positions  in  all  the  principal  states  of  the 
empire,  and  also  in  several  typical  cities. 


*  Compiled  from  Statistisches  Jahrbueh  der  hoheren  Schulen 
Dcutschlands,  u.  s.  w. 


120    SECONDARY  SCUOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Tabic  showing  Salaries  in  I  he 


Priissia  : 

Berliu 

Large  cities. . 
Cities    under 

5(1,000 

Berlin       and 

larj^e  cities 
Cities     under 

50,000 

Cities    under 

50,000 


Berlin 

Other  places, 


Bavaria 
Bavaria 
Bavaria 


Bavaria 
Bavaria 
Bavaria 

Bavaria 


Saxony . 
Saxony . 
Saxony . 
Saxony . 


Saxony 

Saxony 

Wiirtemberg  . 

Wiirtemberg 

Wiirtemberg 
Wiirtemberg 


Wiirtemberg  . . 
Wiirtemberg 
BaJeu  


Complete  9  cl. 
Complete  9  cl. 

Complete  9  cl. 

Less  than  9  cl. 


Any  sec.  sch. 
Any  sec.  sch. 
El,  or  Vorschule. 
Any  sec.  sch. 


Any  sec.  sch. 
Gym.  and  indust. 

sch. 

G3'ni.  and  indust. 
sch. 
Progym.  and 
real-sch. 
Latin  sch. 
Any  sec.  sch. 
Any  sec.  sch. 

Any  sec.  sch. 


Gymnasium, 
(iyinnasiiim. 
(iymnasiiim. 
Gymnasium. 

Real-school. 
Real-school. 
G.  and  R.  G.  and 

10  el.  R.  S. 

Lj'cees,  R.  L., 

and  8  cl.  R.  S. 

Any  sec.  sch. 

Any  sec.  sch. 


Lower  Lat.  and 
R.  S. 


Lower  Lat.  and 
R.  S. 


9  cl.  sch. 


Director. 
Director. 

Director. 

Director. 

Director. 

Ord.  teachers 
Drawing. 
Drawing. 


Assistants. 
Rector. 

Professor. 

Rector. 

Sub-rector. 
Assistants. 
Draw,  and 

turn. 

Gym.,  Stu- 

dien,  and 

Real-lehrer. 

Rector. 
Ord.  teachers 
Ass't 

Draw.,  turn 

sing. 

Dir. 

Ord.  teachers 

Rector. 

Rector. 

Professors. 
Other  teach- 
ers. 

Academic 
trained. 

Not  academic 
trained. 

Director. 


Begin- 


6,000 
5,100 

4,500 

4,500 

4,500 

2.100 
1,600 
1,000 
1,400 

1.500 
4,920 

3,720 

3,720 

3,720 
1,620 
2,040 

2,280 


6,600 
2,400 
1,.500 
1,500 

4,500 
1,500 
4,400 

4,200 

3,600 
2,100 


1,800 


3  yri.      4  yr«.  i  5  yr».      6  yrs.      7  j  r«, 


2,400 


2,050       to 
2,100 


to 
1,850 


4,800 
4,800 


2,000 
2,000 
1,550 


1,800 
2,640 


..to.. 
5,280 

4,080 

4,080 

4,080 

2,220' 

3.000 


2,200 


2,700 


4,800 


1,800 


TEACHERS. 


121 


Principal  States  of  Germany. 


AFTER 

8  yrs. 

9  yrs. 

10  yrs 

1 
12  yrs 

14  yrs 

16  yrs 

IG  yrs 

18  yrs 

20  yrs 

21  yrs 

F.  R. 

5,roo 

6,000 

6,000 

6,000 

5,400 

4,500 

(27) 

3,200 

5,100 

5,400 
5,400 

5,roo 

5,700 

3,900 

5,100 

5,100 

3,600 

3,000 

3,300 

2,800 
2.800 
1,850 

u 

2,400 

^^ 

!l',4()0 

3,200 

2,150 

to 

2,800 

11 

i,ruo 

1 

2,000 

ji 

5,640 
4,440 
4,440 
4,440 
2,400 
3,i80 

6,000 
4,800 
4,800 
4,800 
2,580 
3,360 

6,180 
(a) 

4,980 
(al 

4,980 

4,980 
2,760 

450 
420 
420 
420 

180 
900-1,200 

7,200 
6,000 
2.100 
4,000 

5,400 
3,900 
4,900 

4,700 

4,100 
2,600 

(30 
yrs.) 
2,800 

(30 
yrs.) 
2,250 

(30 
vrs.) 
5,500 

t 

4,600 
4,400 
3,800 

..to.. 
..to.. 
..to.. 

F.  R. 

^^ 

2,300 

2,400 

..to., 
.to.. 

,, 

.to.. 



122    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 


Table  showing  Salaries  in  the 


Baden  

Baden 

Hesse 

Hesse 

Hesse 

Hesse 

Mecklenburg  . 
IMeclilenburg  . 
Alsace-Lor- 
raine   

Alsace-Lor- 
raine   

Alsace-Lor- 
raine   

Alsace-Lor- 
raine   

Braunschweig 
Braunschweig 

Braunschweig 


Oldenburg 
Oldenburg 


Saxe-Weimar. 
Saxe- Weimar. 


Anhalt 
Anhalt 


9  cl.  seh. 

Any  sec.  sch. 

Gym.  and  R.  G. 

Real-sch. 
Any  sec.  sch. 

Any  sec.  sch. 


Any  sec.  sch. 
Any  sec.  sch. 

18  Gym.  and  4 
R.-sch. 

8  sec.  courses  less 
than  9  jt. 

Any  sec.  sch. 


i  of  compl.  inst. 

and  I  inc. 
Gyni.andR.gym, 
Gym.andR.gyni, 


Gym.  and  R.  gym 


Any  sec.  sch. 
Any  sec.  sch. 


Gym.andR.gym 
Gym.  and  R.  gym 


Any  sec.  sch. 
Any  sec.  sch. 


Professor. 

Trial  teach- 
ers. 
Director. 
Director. 
Ord.  teachers 
university 
trained. 
Ord.  teachers 
seminary 
trained. 
Director. 
Sci.  teachers 

Director. 


Director. 


Head 
teachers. 

Head 
teachers. 
Director. 

Head 
teachers. 

Ordinary 
teachers. 

Director. 

Head 
teacher. 

Director. 
Ord.  teachers 


Director. 


Head 
teachers. 


BeglD- 

ning 

salary. 


yr«.      4  yr».      6  yr».      6  yr».      1  yn. 


2,000    2.500 
1,200 


5,140 
4,720 
2,500 


1,650 


5,roo 

2,000 
4,800 


4,500 


2,600 


2.600 


4.800 
2,100 


2,100 


5.000 


5.200 
2.200 


4,500 
2,600 


6,400 
2,500 


2,900 


5,100 
2,400 


2,400 


5.300 


i!,400    2,700 


4,800 
2,900 


5,4.')5 
4,930 


3,000 


aee  Baumeister.    Erziehung  and  Unterrichtslehre,  I,  ii,  pp.  1-239.    Also  Rein's 


TEACHERS. 
Principal  States  of  Oerraany  {continued). 


123 


AFTER 

8  yra. 

9yrs. 

10  yrs 

12  yrs 

14yr» 

15  yrs 

16  yrs 

18  yrs 

20  yrs 

21  yrs 

3,500 

4,000 

(11) 

4,500 

.  to 

5,000 

(18) 
1,600 

to 

..to.. 
..to.. 
..to.. 

5,570 
5,140 

600 

5,000 
2,925 

..to.. 

6,600 

600  or  R. 
NoR. 

R. 
R. 

3,500 

4,000 
5,400 

4,800 

4,500 

6,000 
5,100 
5,000 
5,300 

5,000 
6,600 

5,400 

5,400 

(25 
yrs.) 

■ 

5,900 

(24 
yrs.) 

3,500 

5,700 
3,300 

3,000 

5,900 
3,300 

4,700 

6,000 

5,000 

NoR. 
R. 

NoR. 
NoR. 

300-500 
NoR. 

R.  or  800 

M. 
NoR. 

3,600 

3,200 

6,200 
4,500 

..to.. 

3,900 

3,400 

6,500 
4,800 

4,200 
3.600 

4,,50O 
3,800 

5,400 
(30 

yrs.) 

4,000 
(30 

yrs.) 

5,100 

5,400 

5,700 
(25 
yrs.) 
5,700 
5,000 
in  10 
addi- 
tions. 

5,400 
3,500 

5,700 
4,700 

6,000 
5,300 

3,800 

5,000 

5.900 

(24 
yrs.) 

Encyclopadisches  Handbuch  der  Padagogik,  article  Besoldung  der  Lehrer,  i,  350  et  seq. 
10 


124   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

Salaries  in  Some  Cities 


Berlin 

Berlin 

Berlin 

Berlin 

Berlin. . . . 

Hamburg 
Hamburg 
Hamburg 
Hamburg 
Hamburg 
Hamburg 

Hamburg 

Hamburg 

Hamburg 

Leipsic. . . 
Leipeic. . . 
Leipsic. . . 

Leipsic. . . 

Leipsic. . . 

Leipsic. . . 
Bremen  . 
Bremen  . 
Bremen  . 

Bremen  . 

Bremen  . 

Bremen  . 

Dresden  . 
Dresden  . 
Dresden  . 


Gym.,  R.  gym.,  Ober- 

real-school. 
Gym.,  R.  gym.,  Ober- 

real-school. 
Gym.,  R.  gym.,  Ober- 

real-school. 
Gym.,  R.  gym.,  Ober- 

real-school. 

Gym.,  R.  gym.,  Ober- 

real-school. 

Gymnasium. 

R.  S. 
Any  sec.  sch. 
Any  sec.  scb. 
Any  sec.  sch. 
Any  sec.  sch. 

Any  sec.  sch. 

Vorschule. 

Vorschule. 

Gymnasium. 
Gymnasium. 
Gymnasium. 

Gymnasium. 

Gym.  and  R.  S. 

Real-school. 
Gym.  and  R.  gym. 

Real-school. 
Gym.  and  R.  gym. 

Gym.  and  R.  gym. 

Real-school. 

Real-school. 

Gym.  and  R.  gym. 
Gym.  and  R.  g.ym. 
Gym.  and  R.  gym. 


Director. 

Head  teachers. 

Technical  sub- 
jects. 
Gynmastics. 

Gymnastics. 

Director. 
Director. 
Head  teachers  (a) 
Head  teachers  (6j 
Head  teachers  {c) 
Technical  teach- 
ers («) 
Technical  teach- 
ers (6) 
Ordinary  teach- 
ers (a) 
Ordinary  teach- 
ers (/*) 
Rector. 
Conrector. 
Head  teachers. 

Assistants. 

Gymnastics  and 
draw. 
Director. 
Director. 
Director. 
Academic 
trained  tr. 
Seminary 
trained  tr. 
Academic 
trained  tr. 
Seminary 
trained  tr. 

Rector. 
Conrector. 

Head  teachers. 


Begin* 
nlni; 


6,G00 

3,200 

2,300 

2,400 

1,900 

10.000 
7.200 
7,200 
5,2(X) 
3.200 
4,100 

3,200 

2,600 

1,800 

6,900 
5,700 
2,400 

1,700 

2,000 

5.100 
7,000 
6,000 
2,500 

2,250 

2,400 

2,000 

6,000 
5,500 
2,400 


TEACHERS. 


125 


not  regulated  hy  the  State. 


Syrs. 

6yrs. 

7  yrs. 

9  yrs. 

10  yrs 

12  yrs 

14  yrs 

15  yrs 

18  yrs 

.    20  yrs 

6,900 

7,200 

4,700 
3,200 
3,200 
2,500 

5,000 
3,800 
3,400 

5,S00 
(21) 

3.600 

(21) 
2,700 

5,600 
(24J 

3,800 

4,100 

2,900 

4,400 

2,000 

2,800 

3,000 

2,100 

2,300 

8,400 
8.400 
6.400 
4,400 
4,700 

3,800 

0  000 

9,000 
7,000 
5,0(X) 
5,000 

4,100 

3,600 

2,800 

3,100 
2,300 

3,350 

7,500 
..to. 

7,200 

2,650 

1,050 

5,100 

(25) 
2,100 

(25) 
3,400 

3,600 

(25) 

.  to 

2,^00 

2,800 

3,100 

1,050 

7,500 
6,500 

8,000 
7,000 
4,500 

3,250 

4,200 

3,000 

7.200 
fi.OOO 
3,600 

5,500 
3,750 
5,100 
3,500 

6,500 
4,250 
6,000 
4,000 

3,500 

2,750 

3,300 

2,500 

6,900 

R. 

5,800 

3,900 

4,600 

4,900 

5.200 
(21) 

3,000 

3,400 

120    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GEIlMANY^ 

The  foregoing  tables  of  this  section  show  tlie 
beginning  salaries,  and  the  various  additions  that 
are  made  to  them  at  intervals.  Tlie  values  given 
are  in  marks  (1  mark  =  23.8  cents  ;  approximately, 
one  quarter  of  a  dollar).  It  will  be  remarked  that 
the  beginning  salaries  are  very  low,  and  that  in- 
creases are  small  and  far  apart.  (The  last  column 
indicates  whether  a  free  residence  (F.  E.)  is  fur- 
nished or  the  amount  sometimes  given  in  lieu  of  it. 
In  some  cases  it  was  impossible  to  determine.  Usu- 
ally from  ten  to  fifteen  per  cent  of  the  salary  re- 
ceived (according  to  expensiveness  of  the  locality) 
is  allowed  for  rent. 

When  we  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that 
the  purchasing  power  of  money  is  no  greater  in 
Germany  than  in  this  country,  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  salaries  are  very  meagre.  After 
living  in  both  countries,  and  keeping  a  very  strict 
account  of  expenses  of  living,  I  have  found  that  to 
live  in  Germany  on  the  same  plane  as  here  the  ex- 
penses differ  very  inconsiderably.  The  balance,  if 
any,  shows  increased  cost  in  Germany.  I  am  well 
aware  that  poj^ular  opinion  conceives  the  case  differ- 
ently, and  also  that  many  writers  make  opposite 
statements.  But  they  lose  sight  of  the  important 
part  of  the  argument — i.  e.,  they  forget  to  make 
the  plane  of  living  the  same  for  both  countries. 
That  Germans  do  live  more  cheaply  than  Americans 
I  do  not  propose  to  dispute.  But  that  one  can  live 
in  the  average  city  in  the  United  States  as  cheaply 
as  he  can  on  the  same  plane  in  Germany,  I  am  fully 
convinced  from  an  inspection   of   my  own   closely 


TEACHERS.  127 

kept  account  book.  There  are  certain  classes  of 
articles  that  are  much  cheaper  in  Germany  than  in 
America.  Laces,  silks,  china  ware,  toys,  fancy  goods, 
ladies'  hats,  cloaks,  and  ready-made  dresses,  wine, 
beer,  cigars,  and  smokers'  articles  are  all  cheaper 
there  than  here — some  very  much,  others  only  a 
little.  All  sorts  of  amusements,  such  as  theatres, 
museums,  fairs,  public  parks,  skating  rinks,  baths, 
etc.,  are  about  one  fourth  of  American  prices. 

Kent  is  also  considerably  lower  than  in  American 
cities ;  doctors'  fees,  lawyers'  fees,  dentists'  fees,  and 
barber  bills  are  also  only  one  half  or  one  third  as 
high  there  as  here.  But  when  we  turn  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  cost  of  food  products  and  staple 
articles  of  wearing  apparel  the  case  is  changed.  All 
articles  of  food  consumption,  with  the  exception  of 
"  Roggenbrod "  and  some  kinds  of  vegetables,  are 
much  higher.  Wheat  flour  costs  nearly  twice  as  much, 
all  kinds  of  meat  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  per  cent 
more  ;  eggs,  butter,  sugar,  potatoes,  and  most  fruits, 
about  twenty  per  cent  more  than  in  America.  All 
kinds  of  ready-made  clothing,  cotton  or  woollen 
goods,  shoes,  hats,  umbrellas,  etc.,  can  be  bought 
in  America  equally  as  cheap  as  in  Germany.  The 
subject  might  be  discussed  at  great  length,  but  it  is 
sufficient  to  note  that  the  facts  shown  in  the  tables 
indicate  that  the  amount  of  salary  which  the  ordi- 
nary German  teacher  receives  is  very  small,  consid- 
ered absolutely  or  relatively.  v 

One  compensation  for  the  scantiness  of  salary  is, 
however,  the  expected  pension.  A  teacher  who  has 
served  in  the  public  schools  ten  years  or  more,  if 


128    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

(lisiibled  by  sickness  or  accident,  is  assured  of  a  pen- 
sion. After  serving  about  forty-five  years  he  may 
retire  and  receive  a  pension  for  the  rest  of  his  life. 
The  amount  of  the  pension  varies  with  the  length 
of  service,  being  about  twenty-five  per  cent  of  the 
salary  received  at  the  end  of  ten  years'  service  and 
increasing  up  to  about  seventy-five  per  cent  at  the 
end  of  forty-five  years.  The  amounts  and  time  re- 
quirements vary  in  the  different  states.  A  man's 
widow  and  small  children  also  receive  certain  pen- 
sions in  case  of  the  teacher's  death.  Hence  there 
is  not  that  anxiety  concerning  a  "  rainy  day  "  or  old 
age  that  constantly  presses  upon  American  teachers. 


CHAPTEE  III. 
movements  toward  reform  in  courses  of  study. 

1.  Historical  Basis  of  Curricula. 

Since  the  question  concerning  the  species  of 
secondary  school  or  schools  best  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  Germany  has  occupied  so  much  of  the 
attention  of  the  schoolmen  and  philosophers,  and 
the  German  people  in  general,  it  will  probably  not 
be  amiss  to  sketch  briefly  the  fundamental  questions 
that  have  entered  into  the  discussions.  It  will  also 
be  well  to  point  out  the  various  epochs  in  the  growth 
of  the  secondary-school  systems.  The  recent  move- 
ment is  not  of  mushroom  growth,  but  its  roots  ex- 
tend far  back  into  the  past.  The  present  movement 
is  only  the  culmination  of  long-continued  agitation, 
sometimes  quiet  and  undemonstrative  and  at  other 
times  breaking  forth  in  discussions  and  controversies 
of  the  most  heated  and  lively  sort. 

I  shall  not  enter  into  details  of  secondary  school 
history.  To  do  it  justice  would  require  a  volume 
for  that  topic  alone.  Those  who  care  to  inquire 
into  the  subject  exhaustively  will  find  rich  mines  of 
information  and  philosophical  treatment  in  such 
works  as  Paulsen's  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unter- 
richts.  For  full  and  detailed  accounts  of  the  most 
recent  movement,  which  culminated  in  the    "  De- 

129 


130    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

cembcr  Conference  of  1800,"  see  Prof.  Charles  H. 
Thurber's  account  in  tlie  Eeport  of  the  Commission- 
er of  Education,  i,  188!)-'00.  A  clear  and  concise 
account  of  the  movement  is  also  to  be  found  in 
Prof.  Dr.  Conrad  Hetwisch's  Deutschlands  huheres 
Schulwesen  im  19.  Jahrhundert.  From  the  three 
authors  mentioned,  the  facts  here  embodied  are 
drawn  principally,  and  the  only  justification  of  this 
chapter  is  the  advantage  of  making  the  treatment 
of  German  secondary  schools  symmetrical,  and  also 
the  desire  to  place  in  proper  jserspective,  for  those 
who  may  not  read  German,  the  facts  which  come 
later  in  my  treatment  of  present  courses  of  study. 

The  gymnasium  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  first 
schools  founded  in  Germany  during  the  middle  ages. 
Previous  to  the  influence  awakened  by  the  Eenais- 
sance,  learning  was  mostly  confined  to  the  monas- 
teries ;  but  with  the  influx  of  new  learning  and  the 
growth  of  cities  in  Germany,  other  schools  than  the 
Do7n  and  Eloster .  Schulen  (cathedral  and  cloister 
schools)  became  a  necessity.  The  Batscliulcn  (city 
schools)  were  erected,  and  from  these  came  the  typ- 
ical Latin  school  of  the  sixteenth  century,  this  in 
turn  developing  in  Germany  into  the  gymnasium 
of  the  present.  In  England  the  term  "grammar 
school  "  became  prevalent  in  designating  schools  of 
the  same  character.  In  America  the  term  Latin 
school  was  used  until  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century  to  designate  the  offshoot  in  this  country. 
The  name  gymnasium  first  came  into  use  in  Ger- 
many in  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  purjDose  of  the  Dom  and  Kloster  schools  was 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  131 

avowedly  that  of  preparing  the  clergy  for  the  church, 
and  hence  they  attempted  to  give  instruction  and 
finish  in  all  knowledge  which  the  clerical  calling 
made  necessai-y.  These  branches  consisted  of  sing- 
ing, reading,  writing,  computation,  and  grammar,  as 
fundamentals ;  then  followed  those  studies  which 
enabled  them  to  speak  with  more  force  and  elegance. 
A  knowledge  of  the  sciences  was  also  considered 
necessary  to  a  proper  exegesis  of  the  sacred  writings. 
Thus  arose  the  "  seven  disciplines  " — the  three  for- 
mal {artes  sei^mocincdes)  and  the  four  real  (artes 
reales)  disciplines.  The  first  consisted  of  grammar, 
rhetoric,  and  dialectics,  and  the  latter  of  arithmetic, 
geometry,  astronomy,  and  music.  All,  however,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind,  centred  about  one  point, 
that  of  preparing  for  religious  duties  and  formali- 
ties. As  Professor  Paulsen  says,*  the  aim  was  "  lit- 
terarische  Bildung  und  Konfessionelle,  oder  mit 
Joseph  Sturms  Formel,  litterata  jnetas.''''  He  fur- 
ther adds  that  the  literary  ideal  conceived  was  the 
ability  to  write  classical  Latin  in  prose  and  verse. 
It  was  believed  that  imitation  of  the  old  poets  and 
rhetoricians  was  the  road  to  eloquence.  H.  Wigge 
writes :  f  "  Das  Gymnasium  ist  urspriinglich  als  Beruf- 
schule  f  iir  die  Diener  der  Romischen  Kirche  gegriin- 
det  worden.  Es  war  bestimmt,  zu  lehren,  was  zum 
Verstandniss  der  Kirchenlohre  und  zur  Ausiibung 
des  Kirchendienstes  nothwendig  war,  die  Sprachen, 
die  Bibel  und  der  Kirchenvater ;  Lateinisch,  Grie- 

*  Geschiclite  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  ii,  p.  8. 

f  Rein's  Encyclopadisches  Handbuch  der  Piidagogik,  ii,  iii. 


132    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

chiscli,  llebriiisch,  orsteres  vor  alien ;  es  musste  also 
die  alten  Sprachen  treiben,  um  Theologen  zu  bil- 
den." 

From  the  schools  of  the  middle  ages,  having  the 
classical  studies  as  the  core  of  all  instruction,  the 
gymnasium  of  the  present  docs  not  widely  deviate  in 
curriculum.  By  examination  of  their  programmes  in 
Prussia,  it  is  found  that  out  of  each  252  hours'  total 
instruction  in  a  gymnasial  course,  62  hours  are  de- 
voted to  Latin,  36  to  Greek,  19  to  religion.  That  is, 
117  hours  are  still  devoted  to  classics  and  to  reli- 
gious observances.  Frequently  there  are  6  hours  of 
Hebrew  additional.  In  Saxony  even  more  time  is 
devoted  to  Latin  and  Greek  than  in  Prussia.  Thus, 
nearly  half  of  the  boy's  whole  study  time,  from  six 
to  twenty  years  of  age,  is  spent  in  mastering  Ian-' 
guages  long  since  dead,  and  with  thoughts  expressed 
nearly  twenty  centuries  ago — material  which  is  no 
longer  necessary  to  investigation.  Professor  Paul- 
sen says  that  if  all  the  scientific  literature  of  the 
ancients  were  dropped  completely  out  of  existence, 
mathematics,  natural  science,  jurisprudence,  philoso- 
phy, and  theology  would  in  no  wise  suffer.* 

Although  the  core  of  the  studies  is  the  same  as 
formerly,  the  ideals  striven  for  are  undoubtedly  vast- 
ly different.  As  Professor  Paulsen  sees  it,  the  goal 
now  striven  for  is  not  imitation,  but  the  formation 
of  the  mind  and  taste  through  intercourse  with  the 
old  authors  in  all  literary  productions.  This  view 
is  perhaps  the  philosophical  one  taken  by  learned 

*  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  ii,  p.  633. 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  133 

pedagogues,  but  the  more  immediately  practical 
view  sees  that  it  is  the  secondary  school  which  fits  for 
the  university,  and  opens  the  way  to  certain  privi- 
leges in  life  which  no  other  course  will  do.  "  All 
roads  lead  to  Eome,  but  only  one  to  the  university, 
and  that  road  is  the  gymnasium."  * 

Realschulen  (real-schools)  have  been  in  existence 
since  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The 
name  was  first  used  in  Halle.  Christopher  Semler 
there  opened  a  "  mathematische  und  mechanische 
Eealschule."  It  was  not  a  school  with  an  independ- 
ent existence,  but  an  "  institute  "  in  which  a  few 
courses  were  given,  where  "instruments,  models, 
machines,  and  implements,  as  well  as  natural  objects 
of  all  sorts,  could  be  explained."  The  chief  aim, 
according  to  Semler,  was :  "  dass  die  Jugend  an  eine 
wahre  Realitat  gewohnt  werde.  For  here  are  no 
empty  speculations  or  useless  subtilities,  but  ipsis- 
simce  res,  they  are  Dei  opera,  and. such  machines  as 
render  utility  in  daily  life."  f 

The  first  fully  developed  real-school  was  organ- 
ized in  Berlin  in  1747  by  J.  J.  Hecker,  a  former  stu- 
dent in  Halle.  His  first  thought  was  to  better  the 
existing  conditions  of  Hhe  elementary  schools,  and 
secondly  to  provide  a  higher  school  for  the  most 
inquiring  of  the  middle  classes.  In  this  "  okono- 
misch-mathematischen  Eealschule "  of  Hecker  the 
programme  of  1747  included  religion,  Latin,  Ger- 
man, French,  drawing,  history,  geography,  geometry, 

*  Juling,  Das  zehnklassige  Gymnasium, 
f  Paulsen,  op.  cit.,  ii,  p.  G3. 


13-i    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

mechanics,  architecture,  and  morals,  besides  special 
courses  for  particular  callings.*  Immediately  after 
this  similar  schools  began  to  grow  up  all  over  Ger- 
many. The  courses  at  first  did  not  appear  very 
different  from  many  of  the  Latin  schools  of  the  day, 
but  as  soon  as  tlie  Abiturienten,  or  leaving  examina^ 
tion,  was  inaugurated  in  1788  the  separation  became 
at  once  definitely  marked  ;  the  gymnasium  main- 
tained its  classical  character  while  the  real-school 
became  more  and  more  a  people's  school. 

About  1821  Director  Spilleke  of  the  Berlin  school 
began  to  realize  that  the  same  school  could  not  well 
give  pupils  of  the  middle  classes  of  people  a  proper 
general  education  and  at  the  same  time  provide 
technical  instruction.  In  the  early  '20's  Greek  was 
made  one  of  the  required  major  subjects  of  the 
final  examination  in  the  Latin  schools  and  gymnasia, 
and  was  placed  in  the  curricula  as  a  regular  subject 
beginning  with  Quarta.  These  changes  made  the 
Latin  schools  more  and  more  unsuitable  to  the  com- 
mon people,  and  it  became  evident  that  something 
must  be  done  to  provide  for  the  needs  of  those  who 
expected  to  enter  upon  business  life  as  well  as  of 
those  who  expected  to  attend  the  universities.  The 
labourers  realized  that  they  did  not  need  the  clas- 
sics ;  they  were  learning  what  they  did  not  need,  and 
what  they  needed  they  did  not  learn.  The  future 
university  students  were  also  hindered  by  the  pres- 
ence of  so  much  unnecessary  foreign  material. 

But  the  government  was  loath  to  take  a  hand  in 

*  Paulsen,  op.  cif.,  ii,  p.  64. 


REFORM   IN   COURSES  OF   STUDY.  I35 

the  matter  of  adjustment.  Paulsen  writes  that  the 
governmental  interests  were  more  closely  united  with 
the  gymnasium  than  with  the  seemingly  necessary 
"  compromise  "  school.  The  question  came  up  in 
this  form  :  "  What  shall  be  done  with  those  gymna- 
sium students  who  will  not  attend  the  universi- 
ties ?  "  * 

It  was  the  opinion  of  Johannes  Schulze  (then 
Minister  of  Education  in  Prussia)  that  the  gymna- 
sium must  be  entirely  freed  from  this  "  Schiilerbal- 
last  "  (later  so  called). 

In  March,  1824,  a  rescript  from  the  minister  was 
issued  which  obliged  the  schools  to  make  severer 
examinations  and  sharper  distinctions,  so  as  to  free 
the  gymnasia  of  all  unsuitable  material.  But  so 
much  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon  the  govern- 
ment in  the  clamour  for  some  sort  of  a  "  compro- 
mise "  institution  that  in  March,  1832,  an  order 
relating  to  the  final  examinations  ("  Entlassungs- 
priifungen  dem  hoheren  Biirger  und  Eealschulen  "), 
was  issued,  which  indicated  that  the  pupils  who 
passed  it  should  have  the  same  privileges  (relating  to 
the  one  year's  free  military  service,  the  right  to  enter 
the  postal  service,  etc.),  that  had  been  given  to  the 
gymnasial  graduates.  (At  that  time  the  real- 
schools  had  nine-year  courses.)  The  subjects  for 
examination  were  German,  Latin  (Caesar,  Ovid,  Ver- 
gil), French  (in  schools  where  taught,  including  the 
ability  to  read,  write,  speak),  English,  Italian,  reli- 

*"Was  das  Gymnasium  mit  dem  Schiilerii  nnicheii  solle, 
die  nieht  zu  Uuiversitatsstudieii  seieii^" 


136    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

gion,  liistory,  geography,  mathematics,  and  natural 
science.  But  it  was  also  added  that  if  Latin  was 
not  taught  the  graduates  should  be  excluded  from 
all  positions  where  Latin  was  needed.  Thus,  here 
was  a  distinct  blow  at  tlie  real-schools  on  the  part  of 
the  government.  Latin  was  a  prescribed  study,  and 
if  "  Lateinlos,"  about  the  only  privileges  they  could 
claim  were  similar  to  those  of  the  burgher  schools, 
since  most  of  the  important  positions  could  and  did 
contend  for  Latin  as  a  prerequisite  for  entrance  to 
them.  The  real-schools  had  become,  as  Paulsen 
says,  real-gymnasia  against  the  wishes  of  the  people 
and  without  attached  privileges. 

But  in  consequence  of  the  reaction  against  this 
state  of  things  there  came  better  things  for  the  real- 
schools.  Through  the  wail  that  went  up  from  all 
quarters  concerning  the  injustice,  the  real  status 
became  evident.  The  recognition  of  the  evil  was  a 
very  important  factor  in  the  solution  of  the  problem. 
At  all  events,  on  October  6, 1859,  an  important  order 
was  issued  by  the  government.  This  marks  the 
birth  of  the  Prussian  real-gymnasium. 

By  this  order  the  real-schools  were  brought  under 
the  management  of  the  Provincial  Schulkollegium 
instead  of  remaining  under  the  same  management 
as  the  people's  schools.  They  were  in  the  future  to 
be  recognised  under  three  classes  :  real-schools  of  the 
first  class  and  second  class,  and  higher  burgher 
schools.  The  first  to  be  the  2iormal  form,  having 
a  nine-year  course,  with  Latin  throughout  the 
courses  ;  the  other  two  to  be  incomplete  forms  with 
shorter  courses.      The   second   class  was  to  be  ar- 


REFORM   IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  137 

ranged  without  entitling  to  the  coveted  privileges 
{Berechtigunfjen) ;  Latin  was  to  be  optional.  The 
higher  burgher  school  was  planned  to  have  the  same 
course  as  the  real-schools  of  the  first  class,  lacking, 
however,  the  two  years  in  Prima.  This  form  sub- 
sequently developed  into  the  real-progymnasium. 
In  the  official  Lehrplan,  or  plan  of  studies,  it  was 
stated  that  no  principal  difference  was  to  be  recog- 
nised between  gymnasia  and  real-schools  ;  both  were 
to  impart  the  fundamentals  of  knowledge  ;  the  real- 
school  was  not  to  become  a  technical  school ;  the 
two  were  simply  to  prepare  for  the  different  future 
callings.  This  division  was  made  a  necessity  in 
consequence  of  the  development  of  science  and  the 
changed  relations  of  life  fast  asserting  themselves. 

But  as  to  privileges  the  real-schools  were  still  at 
a  disadvantage.  True,  the  real-schools  of  the  first 
class,  as  well  as  the  gymnasia,  were  given  the  privi- 
lege of  the  one-year  voluntary  military  service  after 
a  half  year's  attendance  in  Secunda,  and  their  gradu- 
ates were  also  admitted  to  study  in  some  of  the  tech- 
nical schools. 

In  the  other  two  classes  of  school  a  half  year  in 
Prima  was  required  to  secure  the  one-year  voluntary 
service.  But  graduates  from  the  real-schools  of  all 
classes  were  debarred  from  the  universities.  The 
classical  gymnasium  was  still  the  only  road. 

Nevertheless,  the  necessity  for  the  existence  of 
the  real-schools  was  being  demonstrated.  On  the 
one  hand,  the  conditions  of  life  were  constantly 
changing,  and  the  demands  of  the  departments  of 
skilled  labour  were  making  manifest  the  necessity  of 


138    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

higher  training,  combined  with  the  acquaintance 
with  scientific  methods ;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
technical  schools  were  rapidly  coming  into  exist- 
ence. These,  in  turn,  exerted  a  most  potent  influ- 
ence in  shaping  the  courses  of  training  preparatory 
to  entering  them.  In  place  of  the  superfluous  classic 
lore  they  demanded  an  acquaintance  with  things. 
Henceforth,  in  all  parts  of  Germany  this  new  form 
of  compromise  school  began  to  grow  rapidly.  They 
were  established  in  Saxony,  Bavaria,  Wiirtemberg, 
Hesse,  Mecklenburg,  Schleswig-Holstein,  and  in  the 
free  cities  of  Hamburg,  Liibeck,  and  Bremen.  They 
were  recognised  in  name  in  Saxony  as  early  as  1870, 
(some  years  before  they  were  in  Prussia),  and  in 
Bavaria  in  1864.  Paulsen  strenuously  denies  that 
they  were  arbitrary  creations  of  the  Prussian  school 
bureaucracy  ("  Sclnilhvreauhratie "),  as  some  have 
maintained,  but  affirms  that  they  were  the  neces- 
sary products  of  the  age.  He  writes  in  substance : 
"  The  real-gymnasium  is  not  a  discovery  but  it  is  a 
growth  of  the  time.  Various  commercial  conditions 
and  necessities  have  brought  forth  the  iiQVf  form  of 
gymnasium.  It  is  not  a  pure  citizens'  school,  neither 
is  it  a  pure  classical  school,  but  partakes  of  the  na- 
ture of  both.  There  are  people  who  require  a  second- 
ary education  which  neither  the  citizens'  school  nor 
the  classical  gymnasium  offers.  They  are  in  a  large 
part  to  be  found  in  the  government  official  positions, 
and  do  not  go  to  the  university.  It  is  for  them  that 
the  new  form  of  '  Hochschulen '  has  arisen  during 
this  century  (such  as  mining,  engineering,  forestry 
academies,  military  academies,  etc.).     They  cannot 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  139 

wholly  dispense  with  Latin,  because  it  is  met  with  on 
all  sides  in  their  work,  neither  can  they  get  along 
without  the  sciences  and  modern  languages.  Besides 
these  there  are  those  who  have  charge  of  great  in- 
dustries, also  merchants,  landlords,  technical  men,  and 
chemists,  who  could  get  along  without  Latin  in  their 
business,  but  frequently  experience  a  lack  in  the 
way  of  accomplishments,  Avhen  not  in  possession  of 
it.  Hence,  the  real-gymnasium  has  arisen  to  meet 
these  demands.*  If  the  real-gymnasium  be  struck 
out  the  result  cannot  be  otherwise  than  that  the 
majority  of  its  pupils  will  turn  toward  the  gymna- 
sium rather  than  take  up  with  the  less  worthy  citi- 
zens' school.  The  philologians  will  then  view  the 
situation  askance  from  two  points  of  view.  One 
class  will  see  only  the  growing  burden  of  unfit 
pupils  {wachsende  Schi'derballast),  the  other  class 
will  see  the  growing  recognition  of  classical  instruc- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  common  people."  f 

By  18G4  the  higher  citizens'  school  had  nearly 
disappeared,  and  in  its  place  the  real-gymnasium,  or 
Nutzlichkeitkramschule,  as  some  derisively  called  it, 
had  become  incorporated.  The  cities  had  conformed 
to  the  new  order  and  built  real-gymnasia  alongside  of 
the  gymnasia.  In  1869  the  first  class  was  graduated 
from  the  real-gymnasia  in  Prussia.  In  1870  the  gradu- 
ates were  permitted  to  study  mathematics,  natural  sci- 
ence, and  modern  languages  in  the  university.     They 

"■  Der  BegrifE  liebt  reine  Formen,  die  Wirklichkeit  dagegen 
fordert  niannigfache  Uebergangsformeu. 
t  Op,  cif.,.  ii,  p.  557. 
11 


140    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

still  demanded  more  and  asked  to  be  admitted  to 
the  universities  witii  the  same  privileges,  especially 
in  medicine,  as  gymnasial  students  were  accorded. 
From  this  point  the  strife  has  gone  on  for  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  but  little  more  has  been  gained. 

About  1870  real-schools  without  Latin  began  to  be 
established.  These  have  since  developed  into  the  high- 
er real-schools.  In  1879  they  were  given  the  privilege 
of  preparing  students  for  the  industrial  school. 

The  revision  of  the  course  of  study,  which  had 
been  before  the  authorities  since  1873,  was  finally 
effected  in  May,  1882.  On  the  27th  of  that  month, 
for  the  first  time,  all  the  higher  schools  were  brought 
together  in  a  united  order.  The  higher  real-schools 
were  then  first  officially  recognised.  They  had  de- 
veloped out  of  the  real-schools  of  the  second  class 
and  the  industrial  schools.  From  that  time  seven 
classes  of  secondary  schools  have  been  recognised, 
viz.  :  gymnasia,  real-gymnasia,  higher  real-schools, 
progymnasia,  real-progymnasia,  burgher  schools,  and 
real-schools.* 

Thus  matters  stood  in  1882 ;  and  since  that  time 
discussion  has  waxed  warm  upon  the  questions  that 
were  then  uppermost,  and  upon  side  issues  that  have 
grown  out  of  the  original  questions  at  stake.  On 
the  one  hand  there  have  been  ranged  the  champions 
of  the  newer  scientific  education,  deemed  to  meet 
better  the  necessities  of  the  time,  and  still  prepare 
for  the  university  faculties  ;  on  the  other  hand  are  the 
exponents  of  the  time-honoured  classical  instruction, 

*See  chap,  i,  p.  6,  Outline  of  Schools. 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  Ul 

who  can  see  only  one  way  of  securing  a  liberal  edu- 
cation, and  that  through  the  classics.  The  latter 
have  prophesied  that  the  recognised  parity  between 
the  classical  and  the  realistic  institutions  would 
jeopardize  learning  and  ruin  German  science.  More- 
over, they  fear  a  deluge  of  candidates  for  the  learned 
professions.  They  fear  a  class  of  "  hunger  candi- 
dates," educated  paupers,  and  wish  to  devise  means 
of  keeping  the  masses  away  from  the  universities. 

Out  of  these  controversies  has  grown  the  "  Ueber- 
biirdungsfrage,"  or  the  question  of  overburdening  of 
courses,  that  has  come  about  by  attempting  to  make 
each  class  of  school  meet  the  needs  of  all  classes  of 
students.  The  gymnasium  students  have  been  over- 
burdened with  extra  scientific  studies,  while  the  real- 
school  pupils  are  still  swamped  by  the  Latin  they 
must  carry  in  order  to  secure  recognition.  Both 
forms  of  institution  have  multiplied  their  subjects 
in  order  to  meet  the  modern  demands  made  upon 
them.  According  to  Paulsen  (ii,  p.  561)  the  classical 
enthusiasts  are  responsible  for  much  of  the  manifest 
unrest.  He  writes  :  "  The  entire  school  war  {Sclml- 
hricg),  the  entire  unfortunate  complication  of  things, 
has  been  entirely  brought  about  because  the  philo- 
logians  have  secured  laws  making  Greek  a  compul- 
sory study  in  the  gymnasium,  and  as  a  prerequisite 
to  all  higher  study.  Had  they  let  the  Latin  school 
of  the  preceding  century  alone  and  allowed  it  to  de- 
velop itself  naturally ;  had  they  not  decreed  that  all 
who  wish  higher  education  must  take  Greek  as  the 
only  means ;  then  there  would  have  branched  out 
peacefully  from  the  classical  schools  a  higher  burgher 


142    SECONDARY  SCnOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

school,  instead  of  a  real-school  with  Latin,  which  has 
only  split  off  from  the  gymnasium  after  a  liard  fight. 
"  The  stubbornness  and  selfishness  of  the  philo- 
logic  dogmatists  (ScJudpapste),  with  their  belief  in 
the  requirement  necessitating  all  the  world  to  par- 
take of  the  only  saving  culture  (the  classical),  has 
alone  brought  forth  the  entire  uni'est  and  offensive- 
ness  of  the  struggle." 

2.  The  Final  Struggle. 

The  struggle  for  reform  in  the  schools  was  very 
pronounced  during  the  years  between  1882  and  1888. 
During  this  period  Dr.  Eethwisch  Avrites  that  no 
less  than  three  hundred  and  forty-four  reform  propo- 
sitions were  published,  in  which  the  following  gen- 
eral demands  were  most  prominent :  * 

1.  A  common  basis  of  organization  of  the  lower 
grades  (eleven  to  sixteen  years)  in  all  secondary 
schools,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  in  the  studies  offered. 
To  accomplish  this,  they  demanded  the  so-called 
"  Einheitsschule,"  witli  the  above  features. 

2.  Greater  weight  placed  upon  the  more  modern 
subjects  of  instruction  in  the  gymnasia. 

3.  In  all  the  secondary  schools  more  especial  at- 
tention to  the  German  language  and  literature. 

4.  Changes  in  the  privileges  (Berechtignngen)  con- 
ferred by  the  "  Eeif  ezeugniss  "  and  other  certificates 
of  promotion  from  the  schools. f 

*See  Rethwisch's  Deutschlands  hciheres  Schiilwesen,  p.  119. 

f  Rethwiscli  says  :  "  Der  Angelpunkt  den  ganzes  Sehulfrage 

lag  in  den  Berechtigungswesen."  {Loc.  cit.,  p.  119.)     Further, 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  143 

5.  More  bodily  exercise  in  all  schools. 

Among  other  questions  growing  out  of  these  are 
a  few  taken  from  the  constitution  of  (a)  the  General 
German  Association  for  School  Eeform,  and  (b)  the 
prospectus  of  The  Xew  German  School,  the  organ 
of  the  association  for  school  reform. 

6.  Better  preparation  of  students  for  their  later 
callings  as  teachers  and   educators  (from  "  a  "  and 

7.  Simplification  of  the  system  of  examinations 
("  a  "  and  "  b  "). 

8.  Better  school  hygiene  ("  a  "  and  "  b  "). 

9.  Greater  co-operation  of  parents  in  the  duties 
and  rights  of  education  (from  both  "  a  "  and  "  b  "). 

10.  Unification  of  all  efforts  for  school  reform 
(from  "  b  "). 

11.  An  independent  administration  for  educa- 
tional affairs  under  a  more  complete  direction  of 
specialists  ("  b  "). 

12.  An  educational  code  ("  b  ").* 

The  general  meaning  of  the  entire  unrest  has 
been  admirably  summed  up  by  Dr.  Eethwisch,f  from 

according  to  Prof.  Ziegler:  "Den  Anlass  zum  Anspruch  des 
in  den  letzten  Jaliren  mit  so  grosser  Erbitterung  gefiihrten 
Streites  urn  die  Schulegab  aber  die  Frage  der  Berechtigungen. 
Das  sogenannte  Gyranasialmonopol  wurde  in  Anspruch  genom- 
nien,  und  die  Zulassung  der  Realgymnasialabitnrienten  zura 
Univeritiitsstudiuni.  speziell  zu  dem  der  Medizin  begehrt  und 
erstrebt."     (Die  Fragen  der  Schulreforin,  p.  10.) 

*  See  Bureau  of  Education  Reports,  1889-'90,  i,  pp.  330-343, 
for  translations  and  reports. 

j;  Loc.  cit.,  pp.  113-115. 


144    SECOXDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

whom  I  take  tlie  liberty  of  quoting  fit  some  length. 
"The  German  school  reform  movement  is  only  one 
branch  of  a  general  European  movement.  The  de- 
velopment of  civilization  in  recent  times  has  made 
such  extraordinary  strides  that  the  significance  of 
antiquity  as  a  source  of  knowledge  is  much  less  than 
formerly.  Each  European  people  of  the  '  Kultur- 
Jcreis '  *  looks  back  upon  a  rich  national  mental  de- 
velopment. Each  one  must,  however,  be  admonished 
to  contemplate  sharply  its  own  powers  and  possibili- 
ties in  order  to  gain  a  more  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  characteristics  of  other  civilized  nations. 
This  is  made  imperative  by  the  world's  commercial 
struggle,  which  has  been  ushered  in  by  the  electric 
spark.  The  higher  schools  of  all  lands  have  an  in- 
finitely greater  task  to  perform  than  formerly,  in 
bringing  the  growing  youth  into  sympathy  with  the 
education  of  the  present. 

"  The  degree  in  which  the  individual  European 
peoples  still  feel  the  effects  of  antiquity  and  corre- 
spondingly change  the  subjects  of  study  in  their 
higher  schools  stands  in  a  direct  projoortion  to  the  de- 
gree in  which  antiquity  penetrated  into  the  previous 
national  life.  The  culture  of  antiquity  is  yet  a  part  of 
the  present  in  the  life  of  Eomance  peoples  in  a  higher 
degree  than  in  the  Germanic  and  other  civilized  na- 
tions of  Europe.  Since  Frary's  '  La  question  du  La- 
tin,' the  reform  movement  in  France  has  not  come 
to  a  standstill.  Only  recently  there  was  foi'med  in 
France,  with  the  names  of  leading  personalities  head- 

*  Literally,  civilized  circle — i.  e..  the  educated  nations. 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  I45 

ing  the  list,  a  national  association  for  the  reform 
of  secondary  education,  which  attempts  to  formulate 
a  scheme  in  which  the  lowest  grades  shall  all  have 
the  same  instruction.  During  the  period  of  common 
instruction  the  course  is  to  be  without  ancient  lan- 
guages, while  in  the  upper  grades  they  may  diverge 
into  the  humanistic  direction  or  into  that  of  exact  sci- 
ence. An  examination  is  to  be  given  at  the  close  of 
the  lower  period.  In  all  the  schools  with  this  com- 
mon basis  the  first  part  of  the  baccalaureate  exami- 
nation of  the  classical  secondary  instruction  consists 
of  a  Latin  translation  and  a  French  composition, 
for  which  three  themes  are  given  to  the  pupil  to  se- 
lect from.  In  the  second  place,  the  candidates  are 
examined  in  philosophy  or  in  mathematical  jihysics, 
or,  in  special  cases,  in  natural  science.  All  three  di- 
visions of  examinees  must  show  their  acquaintance 
with  modern  history. 

"  In  England,  the  London  L'niversity  has  made 
the  beginning  in  the  reform,  since  Greek  is  no  longer 
among  the  required  subjects  in  the  matriculation  ex- 
amination. 

"  Sweden  and  Korway  have  a  three-grade  common 
school :  the  lower  form  without  Latin ;  a  middle 
form  without  Greek,  but  one  branch  having  Latin  ; 
and  an  upper  form  with  Greek  for  the  classical  stu- 
dents. Greek  is  a  prerequisite  only  for  future  theo- 
logians and  philologians.  In  the  Hungarian  gym- 
nasia Greek  has  become  optional,  and  is  only  re- 
quired of  students  of  theology,  science  of  language, 
philosophy,  and  history.  All  other  branches  of 
study  are  open  to  the  real-school   graduates,  who 


14:G    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

may  have  optional  Latin,  as  well  as  to  the  gymnasia! 
graduates  who  have  not  chosen  Latin.  Greek  may  be 
subsequently  taken  in  a  supplemental  examination. 
The  mother  tongue  and  national  history  form  the 
central  field  of  attention.  The  gymnasium  in  the 
canton  of  Berne  consists  of  a  three-class  common 
lower  form  without  Latin  and  Greek,  and  a  five-grade 
upper  form  branching  into  literary  and  realistic  di- 
visions, of  which  only  the  first  branch  has  Latin  as 
obligatory  and  Greek  as  elective.  At  the  final  ex- 
amination in  the  St.  Gall  Canton  school  and  in  the 
Lucerne  Lyceum  Greek  is  placed  as  an  elective  ;  in 
Basel  it  is  required  of  future  medical  students." 

During  the  last  ten  years,  undoubtedly  the  ques- 
tion relating  to  the  overburdening  of  pupils  has 
rightfully  secured  a  foremost  rank  in  the  struggle. 
The  people  have  taken  up  the  cry  of  "  Ueberbiirdung," 
and  the  cause  has  found  many  able  champions  among 
schoolmen.  The  attitude  and  action  of  the  Em- 
peror on  this  question  have  been  most  significant. 
He  has  begun  to  fear  that  the  overpressure  in  the 
schools  is  endangering  the  physical  health  of  pupils 
and  jeopardizing  the  future  defence  of  the  country. 
Then,  too,  the  superabundance  of  their  studies  has 
crowded  the  study  of  the  mother  tongue  to  the  wall, 
and  indirectly  the  patriotic  teachings  necessary  for 
the  security  of  legal  citizenship  has  been  crowded 
out.  The  programme  of  the  Royal  Cadet  Corps,  as 
revised  by  his  order,  "  lays  special  stress  upon  modern 
languages  and  modern  history."  * 

=■•■•  Dr.  W.  H.  Biirnham,  Pcd.  Sem..  i,  1. 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  147 

Tlie  Emperor's  attitude  toward  tliese  important 
questions  may  be  best  shown  by  direct  quotations 
from  some  of  his  orders  and  speeches  relating  to  the 
matter.  The  first  quotations  are  made  from  his 
order  of  1889.  "  I  have  for  a  long  time  thought  of 
making  use  of  the  schools  in  their  separate  grades 
for  combatting  the  spread  of  socialistic  and  commu- 
nistic ideas.  The  prime  idea  of  the  schools  will  ever 
be  to  lay  the  foundations  for  a  sound  comprehension 
of  both  civic  and  social  relations  by  cherishing  rev- 
erence for  God  and  the  love  of  Fatherland.  But  I 
cannot  fail  to  recognise  that  in  a  time  when  the 
errors  and  misrepresentations  of  social  democracy 
are  spread  abroad  with  increased  zeal,  the  school  is 
called  upon  to  make  increased  efforts  to  advance  the 
recognition  of  the  true,  the  real,  and  the 'possible  in 
the  world.  The  school  must  endeavour  to  create  in 
the  young  the  conviction  that  the  teachings  of  social 
democracy  contradict  not  only  the  divine  commands 
and  Christian  morals,  but  are,  moreover,  impracti- 
cable, and  in  their  consequences  destructive  alike  to 
the  individual  and  to  the  community."  * 

In  March,  1890,  Minister  of  Education  von 
Gossler  first  mentioned  the  idea  of  bringing  together 
in  joint  session  the  prominent  exponents  of  both  the 
classical  and  realistic  instruction  for  the  purpose  of 
discussing,  under  parliamentary  rules,  the  great  ques- 
tions that  were  pressing  upon  them.  It  was  thought 
that  in  this  way  more  would  be  accomplished  than 
by  debate  and  harangue  in  popular  assemblages.     On 

*  See  DuiViui  of  Eduealion  Reports,  i,  1889-'90. 


148    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

the  31st  of  October  the  Minister  issued  an  invitation 
to  prominent  schoohnen  to  attend  a  conference  in 
Berlin  in  December,  for  the  purpose  of  discussing 
matters  pertaining  to  the  welfare  of  the  schools. 

This  conference  was  composed  of  forty-four 
members  representing  the  two  antagonistic  forces. 
The  reformers,  however,  considered  it  a  "  packed  " 
conference.  The  people  had  been  led  to  believe 
that  they  were  at  last  to  have  an  official  hearing,  and 
that  their  cause  would  receive  due  recognition.  But 
as  soon  as  the  names  of  the  participants  and  the  con- 
stitution were  made  known,  the  reformers  lost  all 
hope.  One  gymuasial  advocate  said  :  "  In  fact,  the 
list  of  names  and  the  questions  (proposed  for  discus- 
sion) contain  the  decision."  There  was  a  noticeable 
lack  of  real-gymnasium  supporters,  the  most  promi- 
nent ones  in  the  country  not  having  been  summoned. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  was  a  strong  array  of  sup- 
porters of  the  classical  gymnasia.  Much  might  be 
expected  in  the  nature  of  general  reforms,  but  no 
pronounced  changes  in  the  customary  school  organ- 
ization. Frick  and  Schiller  were  there  to  champion 
the  question  of  better  pedagogical  preparation  of 
teachers,  and  there  were  many  ready  to  take  up  the 
cause  against  overpressure  and  nearsightedness. 
But,  as  Professor  Thurber  observes,  "  The  friends  of 
the  new  German  school,  however,  expected  little,  and 
they  would  have  been  less  disappointed  than  they 
were  but  for  the  energetic  interference  of  the  Em- 
peror." 

The  questions  which  came  up  before  the  confer- 
ence were  as  follows : 


REFOEM   IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  149 

1.  Are  the  varieties  of  high  school  existing  to-day 
to  be  maintained  in  their  present  separation,  or  is  it 
advisable  to  unite  (a)  the  gymnasium  and  the  real- 
gymnasium,  (b)  the  real-gymnasium  and  the  higlicr 
real-school  ? 

2.  Can  a  common  foundation  be  provided  for  the 
three  existing  classes  of  schools  (gymnasia,  real-gym- 
nasia, schools  without  Latin)  or  for  two  of  the  same  ? 
In  the  latter  case  is  it  recommended  (a)  to  extend 
the  existing  uniformity  for  the  three  lower  classes 
of  the  gymnasia  and  real-gymnasia  to  Lower  Secunda, 
(inclusive),  and  to  introduce  from  Upper  Secunda 
upward  the  study  plan  of  the  higher  real-school  ? 
(This  is  providing  for  a  combination  of  the  real- 
gymnasium  with  the  real-school.)  (b)  Or  to  push 
forward  Latin  in  the  real-gymnasium  to  Lower 
Tertia,  and  to  amplify  the  three  lower  classes  that  do 
not  study  Latin  into  a  higher  burgher  school  ? 
(This  is  providing  for  a  combination  of  the  real-gym- 
nasium with  the  higher  burgher  school.) 

3.  Is  it  advisable  to  reduce  the  number  of  hours 
devoted  to  the  ancient  languages  in  the  study  plan 
of  the  gymnasia,  and  so  make  it  possible  to  reduce 
the  total  number  of  hours  of  instruction  in  the  three 
lower  classes,  to  introduce  English  as  an  elective 
study,  and  to  make  drawing  obligatory  above  Quarta  ? 
Should  Latin  composition  as  a  prime  accomplish- 
ment, and  the  written  translation  of  Greek,  be 
dropped  in  Prima  at  the  same  time  that  this  reduc- 
tion of  hours  is  introduced  ? 

4.  Is  it  advisable  to  retain  in  the  study  plan  of 
the  real-srvninasiura  the  increased  amount  of  Latin 


150    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

introduced  in  the  year  1882,  or  should  a  lessening  of 
the  same,  and  thereby  a  reduction  in  the  total  num- 
ber of  school  hours,  be  brought  about  ? 

5.  Is  it  advisable,  (a)  in  places  where  there  are 
only  gymnasia  or  real-gymnasia,  to  introduce,  instead 
of  Latin,  an  increased  amount  of  instruction  in  Ger- 
man and  modern  foreign  languages,  according  to  the 
local  needs ;  (h)  in  places  where  there  are  only  high 
schools  that  do  not  teach  Latin,  to  add  to  their  three 
lower  classes,  according  to  local  needs,  instruction 
in  Latin  ;  (c)  to  reduce  all  institutions  with  seven 
grades  (progymnasia,  real-progymnasia,  real-schools) 
to  institutions  with  six  grades ;  (rl)  to  shape  alike  the 
study  plans  of  the  real-schools  and  the  higher  burgher 
schools,  and  to  arrange  both  so  that,  without  preju- 
dice to  the  different  methods  of  treatment  of  the 
subjects  of  instruction  and  to  the  termination  of  the 
course  of  education,  the  continuance  of  the  same  in 
the  higher  real-school  shall  be  made  easier  ? 

6.  Is  it  advisable  to  introduce  in  those  institu- 
tions arranged  with  a  course  of  study  running  through 
nine  years,  an  earlier  relative  termination  after  the 
sixth  year  of  the  course  in  the  interests  of  the 
scholars  that  enter  into  practical  life  before  the  com- 
pletion of  the  nine  years'  course  ? 

7.  Are  still  other  standards  desirable  for  the  fur- 
thering of  successful  education,  with  regard  to  (a) 
the  maximum  size  of  the  classes,  {b)  the  number  of 
scholars  and  of  classes  allowed  in  each  institution, 
(c)  the  complete  division  of  Tertia  and  Secunda  in 
two  classes,  according  to  years,  and  (d)  the  number 
of  hours  of  duty  of  the  teacher  ? 


REFORM   IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  151 

8.  In  liow  far  is  it  possible,  even  with  a  reduction 
in  the  total  number  of  school  hours,  by  means  of 
intensive  methodical  instruction,  to  transfer  the 
greater  part  of  the  home  work  to  the  school,  espe- 
cially in  the  lower  classes  ? 

9.  What  is  to  be  done  for  the  further  develop- 
ment of  the  instruction  in  gymnastics,  which  at 
present  is  for  the  most  part  given  two  hours  a  week 
and  generally  to  large  divisions,  and  what  other  pro- 
visions for  the  physical  development  of  the  youth  are 
to  be  applied  ? 

10.  Can  the  final  examinations  be  dispensed  with  ? 
In  case  they  can  not  be  done  away  with  entirely, 
should  simplifications  be  introduced,  and  Avhat  ones  ? 

11.  What  changes  are  desirable  with  reference  to 
the  scientific  training  of  the  coming  teachers  in 
higher  schools? 

12.  Through  what  means  can  the  higher  institu- 
tions of  learning  co-operate  to  the  greatest  extent 
possible  with  the  family  to  influence  the  moral  de- 
velopment of  their  pupils  ? 

13.  AVhat  changes  seem  advisable  in  the  privi- 
leges of  the  institutions  (a)  with  a  course  of  study 
extending  over  nine  years,  (b)  in  the  higher  burgher 
schools  (to  be  discussed  as  fitting  for  the  different 
employments)  ? 

14.  If  in  the  future  the  right  to  one-year  service 
can  be  obtained  earlier  in  the  higher  burgher  schools 
than  in  the  other  higher  schools  by  reason  of  the 
earlier  termination  of  their  course  of  study,  and 
changes  are  introduced  for  the  benefit  of  these  higher 
burgher  schools  in  regard  to  other  privileges,  then  the 


152    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

demand  for  this  class  of  schools  will  increase.  AVhat 
general  rules  shall  be  adopted  for  meeting  this  de- 
mand ?  Shall  it  be  the  combination  of  higher  burgher 
schools  with  existing  institutions,  the  transforming 
a  part  of  the  latter,  or  the  building  of  new  higher 
burgher  schools  by  the  state  or  with  state  support  ? 

The  Emperor  was  one  of  the  most  interested  per- 
sons in  the  entire  assemblage.  During  the  session  he 
made  a  most  significant  address.  Professor  Thurber 
writes  that  "  the  scene  therein  presented,  of  the 
most  powerful  monarch  in  the  world  addressing  an 
assemblage  of  schoolmen  on  the  details  of  school 
management,  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 
striking  and  remarkable  episodes  in  educational  his- 
tory." To  indicate  further  the  Emperor's  attitude 
upon  this  absorbing  question,  quotations  from  his 
addresses  are  here  given. 

"...  In  the  first  place,  I  wish  to  observe  that  we 
have  to  do  here,  above  all,  not  with  a  political  school 
question,  but  entirely  with  technical  and  pedagogical 
measures  which  we  must  adopt  in  order  to  fit  the 
growing  generations  for  the  demands  of  the  present, 
for  the  position  of  our  Fatherland,  and  of  our  life  in 
the  world  at  large.  ...  I  have,  on  my  part,  pro- 
posed some  questions,  .  .  .  and  I  hope  they  will  re- 
ceive due  consideration.  .  .  .  First,  school  hygiene 
outside  of  gymnastics — a  matter  that  must  be  con- 
sidered very  carefully ;  then  diminution  in  the  sub- 
jects of  study  (consideration  of  what  must  be  cut 
out) ;  further,  the  plans  of  instruction  for  the  indi- 
vidual studies ;  then  the  system  of  teaching,  the 
organization — the   chief   points   have  already   been 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  153 

brought  forward.  Sixth,  is  the  crowding  with  unfit 
pupils  (in  the  nine-year  schools)  removed  by  the  ex- 
aminations ?  And  seventh,  is  overburdening  avoided 
for  the  future  ?  Eighth,  what  plan  have  we  for  con- 
trol when  the  work  is  finished  ?  Only  regular  and 
extraordinary  inspection  by  different  higher  officials. 
.  .  .  The  last  period  in  which  our  school  was  a 
standard  for  our  whole  national  life  and  our  develop- 
ment w^as  in  the  years  1804  or  1866  to  1870.  Then 
the  Prussian  schools  and  the  Prussian  teaching  fac- 
ulties were  the  bearers  of  the  idea  of  unity  that  was 
preached  everywhere.  All  graduates  who  came  out 
of  the  schools  and  began  their  volunteer  military 
service  or  entered  upon  active  life  were  united  upon 
this  one  point :  The  German  empire  shall  be  again 
established,  and  Alsace  and  Lorraine  won  back  again. 
That  ceased  with  the  year  1870.  The  empire  is 
united  :  we  have  what  we  wanted  to  gain,  and  there 
the  matter  has  rested.  Starting  from  the  new  basis, 
the  school  ought  now  to  animate  the  youth  and 
make  clear  to  them  that  the  purpose  of  the  new  po- 
litical condition  is  that  the  empire  may  be  preserved. 
...  If  one  should  converse  with  one  of  the  gentle- 
men concerned,  and  seek  to  explain  to  him  that  the 
young  man  must,  after  all,  to  a  certain  extent,  receive 
a  practical  preparation  for  life  and  its  problems,  the 
answer  is  ever,  that  that  is  not  the  task  of  the 
schools ;  the  chief  object  is  the  gymnastics  of  the 
intellect,  and  if  these  gymnastics  are  properly  pur- 
sued the  young  man  will  be  in  a  condition  to  ac- 
complish with  these  gymnastics  all  that  is  neces- 
sary for  life.     I  believe  that  we  can  be  no  longer  de- 


154    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

ludcd  by  this  doctrmc.  .  .  .  AVhoevcr  lias, been  in 
the  gymnasium  himself,  and  has  caught  a  glimpse 
behind  the  scenes,  knows  what  is  lacking  there. 
Above  all,  the  national  basis  is  lacking.  AVe  must 
take  the  German  language  as  the  foundation  for  the 
gymnasium ;  we  ought  to  educate  national  young 
Germans  and  not  young  Greeks  and  Romans.  We 
must  depart  entirely  from  the  basis  that  has  existed 
for  centuries — from  the  old  monastic  education  of 
the  middle  ages,  where  the  standard  was  Latin  with 
a  little  Greek  added.  .  .  .  The  so-called  'hunger 
candidates,'  especially  the  journalists,  are  multifa- 
riously ruined  gymnasiasts  ;  they  are  a  great  danger 
for  us.  This  abundance  of  gymnasiums,  that  is  al- 
ready too  great,  like  a  saturated  field  that  can  take  in 
no  more,  must  be  disposed  of.  On  that  account  I  will 
not  sanction  another  gymnasium  that  cannot  prove 
absolutely  its  right  to  existence  and  its  necessity.  AVe 
have  enough  already.  AVe  need  a  second  class  of 
schools  with  practical  culture  but  no  real-gymnasia. 
The  real-gymnasia  are  half-and-half  institutions ; 
through  them  a  half-and-half  culture  is  obtained,  and 
it  gives  only  a  half-and-half  preparation  for  life  after- 
ward. .  .  .  Each  scholar  in  the  schools  has  about  25,- 
000  hours  of  school  and  home  study,  and  in  this  num- 
bed only  about  657  hours  for  gymnastics.  That  is  a 
preponderance  of  intellectual  work  which  must  cer- 
tainly be  reduced.  .  .  .  The  statistical  returns  con- 
cerning the  spread  of  school  diseases,  especially  near- 
sightedness, are  truly  alarming.  .  .  .  The  number 
of  the  nearsighted  in  some  classes  in  Prima  rises  as 
high  as  74  per  cent." 


REFORM   IN   COURSES  OF  STUDY.  155 

In  his  own  class  in  Cassel,  "  out  of  twenty-one 
scholars  eighteen  wore  spectacles,  and  there  were 
two  of  them  who  could  not  see  as  far  as  the  black- 
board with  their  spectacles."  The  Emperor  said 
with  great  earnestness  in  concluding  :  "  Meine  Her- 
ren,  die  Manner  sollen  nicht  durch  Brillen  die  Welt 
ansehen,  sondern  mit  eigenen  Augen,  und  Gefallen 
finden  an  dem,  was  sie  vor  sich  haben,  ihrem  Yater- 
lande  und  seinen  Einrichtungen.  Dazu  sollen  Sie 
jetzt  helfen." 

It  would  be  interesting  to  follow  the  discussions 
that  arose  during  that  long  session  of  the  conference 
(December  4  to  17,  1890),  and  to  give  quotations 
from  the  many  interesting  speeches  that  Avere  made, 
but  the  reader  who  is  interested  is  referred  to  the 
800-page  stenographic  report,*  or  to  the  excellent 
extracts  made  by  Professor  Thurber,f  from  which  I 
have  quoted  many  of  the  above  translations. 

Professor  Preyer  said  :  "  One  thing  is  certain,  at 
least,  that  every  possible  shade  of  opinion,  every  con- 
ceivable idea,  every  practicable  and  every  impractic- 
able scheme  has  at  last  had  a  hearing  and  been  brought 
to  the  attention  of  the  public."  The  great  petition, 
with  22,409  signatures,  to  the  Prussian  ministry,  and 
which  contained  the  signatures  of  300  gymnasium 
teachers,  300  university  professors,  300  clergymen, 
and  1,500  physicians,  he  regarded  as  a  "  monster  pe- 
tition, which  was  alike  excellent  in  form  and  content, 
as  an  unmistakable  proclamation  of  the  nation,  as  a 
fact  in  the  history  of  civilization." 

*  Verhandlungen  iiber  Fragen  des  hoheren  Unterrichts. 
t  Bureau  of  Education  Reports,  1889-"90. 
13 


15G    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

3.  Changes  Wrought. 

The  resolutions  passed  at  the  close  of  the  confer- 
ence need  not  be  given  here.*  They  were  only  ad- 
visory, while  we  may  regard  the  new  courses  of  study, 
officially  published  in  1891,  as  more  nearly  represent- 
ing the  real  results.  The  conference  was  purposely 
so  made  up  by  the  Minister  von  Gossler  that  the  con- 
servative element  Avas  much  in  the  majority,f  and 
hence  the  hopes  of  the  friends  of  real-school  education 
could  not  possibly  be  realized.  Had  it  not  been  for 
the  great  influence  of  the  Emperor  the  changes  rec- 
ommended probably  would  have  been  materially  dif- 
ferent— more  prejudicial  to  the  classical  side.  Partly 
as  a  result  of  the  conference,  and  partly,  probably 
almost  wholly,  as  the  result  of  von  Gossler's  views,J  a 
new  course  of  study  was  issued  for  Prussia,  Decem- 
ber 1,  1891,  which  went  into  effect  at  Easter,  1892. 

The  main  features  of  change  wrought  by  the  long 
struggle,  as  exhibited  in  the  new  order,  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows : 

1.  In  general,  the  result  was  not  favourable  to  the 
friends  of  the  real-gymnasium,  this  class  of  school 
being  forced  nearer  to  the  level  of  the  higher  real- 
school  by  the  reduction  of  the  amount  of  Latin.  (It 
must  be  remembered  that  the  real-school  men  wished 
to  retain  Latin,  but  to  have  no  Greek,  and  yet  have 

*For  a  full  account  of  these  resolutions  see  Professor  Thur- 
ber's  article  in  tlic  Report  of  the  Couiinissioner  of  Education, 
1880-'90,  p.  389  et  seq. 

f  Ziegler,  Die  Fi'agen  der  Schulreform,  p.  12. 

:}:  Paulsen,  Geschichte  des  Gelehrten  Unterrichts.  p.  595. 


REFORM   IN   COURSES  OP  STUDY.  157 

ther  schools  on  a  par  with  the  gymnasia  in  respect  to 
privileges.) 

2.  The  amount  of  Latin  was  reduced  about  one 
fourth  in  the  gymnasium  and  about  one  seventh  in 
the  real-gymnasium.  German  was  made  more  promi- 
nent in  all  schools. 

3.  The  total  number  of  hours  of  instruction  was 
decreased  in  all  schools — sixteen  hours  in  the  gym- 
nasia, twenty-one  hours  in  the  real-gymnasia,  and 
eighteen  hours  in  the  higher  real-schools. 

4.  German  and  German  history  were  made  more 
of  a  centre  of  correlation.  The  German  -composi- 
tion was  made  obligatory,  while  Latin  composition 
was  no  longer  required.  "  Der  deutsche  Aufsatz 
ist  als  Erbe  der  lateinischen  eingesetzt.  .  .  .  Das 
Gymnasium  will  jetzt  sein  eine  deutsch-humanis- 
tische  Schule."  * 

5.  More  time  and  care  were  to  be  given  to  bodily 
exercise. 

6.  The  higher  real-school  graduates  were  per- 
mitted to  study  mathematics  and  natural  science  in 
the  universities. 

7.  The  certificates  of  the  real-schools,  real-pro- 
gymnasia,  and  higher  burgher  schools  with  six-year 
courses  (or  more)  were  to  admit  to  the  one-year  vol- 
untary military  service  and  to  subaltern  positions. 

8.  A  final  examination  {Abschlussprufung)  was 
to  be  allowed  at  the  close  of  L.  II  for  those  who 
wished  to  secure  the  same  privileges  as  the  six-year 

*  Paulsen,  Ueber  die  gcgcnwiirtige  Lage  des  huliereii  Schul- 
wesens,  pp.  7,  8. 


158    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

courses  offered.  Previously,  pupils  had  received  these 
privileges  on.  being  promoted  from  L.  II  to  U.  II. 
Many  preferred  tliis  to  taking  the  examinations  at 
the  six-year  schools,  and  hence  the  lower  classes  of 
the  nine-year  schools  were  overcrowded — "  Scliuler- 
ballast." 

9.  In  the  final  examination  Latin  composition 
was  to  be  no  longer  required,  and  the  subject  mat- 
ter required  in  any  branch  of  examination  was  to 
extend  only  through  the  work  done  in  the  last  two 
years. 

10.  Not  more  than  forty  pupils  in  the  lower  classes 
nor  more  than  thirty  in  the  higher  were  to  receive 
instruction  together.  Twenty-two  hours  were  to  be 
the  limit  of  weekly  class  instruction  given  by  teach- 
ers. 

The  following  are  among  the  most  important 
measures  recommended  by  the  conference  : 

1.  That  in  the  future  only  two  classes  of  schools 
be  maintained — the  classical  gymnasia  and  the 
schools  with  no  ancient  languages.  These  latter 
would  be  higher  real-schools  and  higher  burgher 
schools.  The  name  real-school  was  proposed  for  the 
higher  burgher  schools. 

2.  That  schools  having  nine-year  courses  which 
have  very  poor  attendance  beyond  Lower  Secunda 
be  transformed  into  higher  burgher  schools.  (Such  a 
state  might  be  caused  by  the  exodus  to  the  higher 
burgher  schools  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the 
military  privileges  through  graduation,  which  is 
deemed  easier  than  by  taking  an  examination  there- 
for at  the  close  of  the  sixth  year  in  the  nine-year 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  159 

institutions.  It  might  be  caused  also  by  pupils 
leaving  upon  examination.  Either  condition  would 
justify  the  change.) 

3.  In  cities  which  possess  several  gymnasial  and 
real-gymnasial  institutions  measures  are  to  be  taken 
as  far  as  possible  to  transform  one  of  these  institu- 
tions into  a  higher  burgher  school. 

4.  In  cities  which  as  yet  possess  no  secondary 
schools,  preference  is  to  be  given  to  the  higher 
burgher  school  when  a  secondary  school  is  estab- 
lished. 

5.  The  state  is  to  support  the  establishment  and 
maintenance  of  the  higlier  burgher  schools  according 
to  the  same  principles  as  have  hitherto  governed  the 
gymnasial  institutions,  especially  during  the  period 
of  transition.  The  state  is  to  further  higher  bur- 
gher schools  by  the  application  of  Government  means 
and  to  come  to  the  financial  aid  of  the  less  capable 
cities  in  founding  such  institutions. 

6.  Teachers  in  the  higher  burgher  schools  are  to 
be  paid  as  well  as  in  the  nine-grade  institutions. 

7.  The  courses  of  study  in  the  higher  burgher 
schools  are  to  be  arranged  so  that  pupils  on  finishing 
these  may  pass  to  the  higher  real-schools  without  in- 
convenience. 

8.  In  places  where  there  are  only  higher  schools 
without  Latin,  instruction  in  Latin  should  be  added 
in  the  three  lower  classes. 

9.  To  reduce  all  schools  with  seven  grades  (pro- 
gymnasia,  real-progymnasia,  etc.)  to  six-grade  schools, 
and  to  give  a  final  examination  at  the  close. 

'  10.  A  common  substructure  (as  jiroposed  in  the 


IGO    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Einheitsschule)  for  gymnasia  and  non-classical  schools 
is  not  to  be  permitted. 

11.  Home  work  ought  to  be  diminished. 

12.  No  secondary  scliool  should  have  more  than 
four  hundred  students. 

13.  Better  pedagogical  preparation  of  teachers  is 
desirable.  Teachers  also  ought  to  be  accorded  a 
higher  social  status. 

14.  School  instruction  in  modern  foreign  lan- 
guages should  lead  to  a  thorough  oral  and  written 
mastery  of  them. 

15.  The  moral  culture  of  pupils  should  be  fur- 
thered by  attention  to  general  discipline,  by  foster- 
ing religion  and  patriotism,  and  by  greater  co-opera- 
tion with  parents.  The  system  of  special  teachers 
should  also  be  limited,  and  an  attempt  be  made  to 
better  understand  the  individuality  of  pupils. 

As  a  result  of  the  general  ferment,  changes  were 
made  in  all  four  of  the  kingdoms  of  Germany  dur- 
ing the  year  1891. 

All  the  other  three  accomplished  changes  even 
before  Prussia.  Wiirtemberg  announced  a  change, 
February  10,  1891 ;  Bavaria,  July  23rd,  and  Saxony, 
December  6th.*  The  changes  made  by  the  new 
courses  were  more  sweeping  in  Prussia  than  in  any 
other  state,  especially  with  regard  to  Latin  and 
Greek. 

In  all  the  kingdoms  the  changes  made  were  quite 
similar  to  those  wrought  in  Prussia.     In  no  other 

*The  change  in  Prussia  was  effected  December  1st,  but  was 
not  publislied  until  1892,  and  went  into  effect  at  Easter. 


REFORM  IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 


161 


case  were  they  quite  so  radical.  An  examination  of 
the  tables  showing  the  present  courses,  and  the  table 
exhibiting  changes  effected  in  1892  reveals  the  facts 
that  Prussia  now  has  a  less  amount  of  Latin  in  her 
gymnasia  and  real-gymnasia,  and  has  less  Greek  in 
the  gymnasia  than  Saxony,  Wiirtemberg,  or  Meck- 
lenburg. Xo  state  has  less  than  Prussia.  Drawing 
was  considerably  increased  in  most  of  the  states. 
English,  though  not  increased  in  the  gymnasia,  was 
somewhat  advanced  by  requiring  all  schools  to  offer 
it  as  an  elective. 

The  following  tables  show  changes  made  by  the 
latest  plan  of  studies,  and  the  exact  amount  required 
in  the  various  schools  in  Prussia,  during  the  various 
periods  of  development  in  the  last  century. 


Table  showing  Changes  from  Former  Gymnasium  Courses 
by  the  Plan  of  Study  issued  in  1S92. 


PruBsia. 

Bavaria. 

Saxony. 

Wiirtem- 
berg. 

Baden. 

Pr. 

R.-gym. 

Pr.  Hr. 

R.  S. 

Religion 

Gerniaa 

±0 
+  5 
-15 
-4 
o 

_  2 

+  3 
±0 
±0 
±2 
+  0 
±0 
±0 
±0 

±0 

+  1 

—  7 
±0 

+  2 

-3 

+  4 
-5 
+  4 
±0 
±0 
±0 
±0 

-1 
+  2 
-5 
±0 
-2 

-2 

-1 

±0 
±0 
±0 
±0 
±0 
±0 

_  2 

+  4 

-m 

—  2 

+  2 
-1 
+  5 

\*> 

_  i 
-2 
±0 
±0 
±0 
±0 
±0 

±0 
-T 

+  0 
±0 

±0 

±0 

±0 

±0 
-4 

+  8 
±0 
±0 
±0 
±0 

±0 

+  1 

-  11 

-3 
_  2 

±0 
±0 
±0 
_  2 

±0 

±0 
±0 
-2 

±0 

±0 

+  4 

Fi'ench 

9 

Geography 

Natural  science. 
Physics 

-2 

-1 
1 

Chem.  and  min. 
Mathematics.. . 

Writing 

Drawing 

+  2 
_  2 

±0 
-8 
±0 
±0 
1 

Gymnastics 

English 

Hebrew 

The    sentiment    of    the    people    everywhere,  as 
shown  in  the   character   of  the  schools  they  were 


162    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


Table  shoicing  Total  Numher  of  Hours  for  Each  Subject,  as 
determined  in  the  Courses  of  Study  legalized  at  the 
Indicated  Times  (Prussia). 


Religion 

Latin 

Greek 

German 

French 

Mathematics 

Natural  science. 

Physics 

Chemistry 

History 

Geograpliy 

Drawing 

Writing 

Phil,  prop 

Hebrew 

English 


Gymnasium. 


60 
[20 


■30 


S4 


25 


20 
86 
42 
20 
17 
32 


25 


28 

6 

4 

Opt 
Opt 


Opt 
Opt 


R.-GyM. 


20 


18 


Higher 
Real- 
School. 


26 


25 


building  during  this  period,*  was  also  most  signifi- 
cant. By  establishing  and  maintaining  real-schools 
at  their  own  expense,  when  the  Government  would 
bear  most  of  the  expense  for  gymnasia,  they  plain- 
ly showed  that  what  the  Government  was  furnishing 
was  not  acceptable,  and  that  they  were  determined 
to  secure  what  they  deemed  more  suited  to  their 
needs,  cost  what  it  might. 

In  all  the  states  the  growth  of  real-schools  and 
higher  real-schools,  as  compared  with  gymnasia  and 
real-gymnasia,  has  been  amazing  during  the  last 
decade  and  a  half.     In  1882  the  number  of  pupils 

*  As  previously  pointed  out,  the  gymnasia  are  nearly  all 
state  institutions.  The  state  builds  few  real-schools  ;  these  are 
mostly  maintained  at  local  expense. 


REFORM   IN  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 


163 


i-  C'*  C5  10  O  !?*  t^  O 


'  Wr-I    T-.C* 


■-  X  i-.  lO  ^  i-i  CQ  Ti  i--  t-  c*  o 


T-i   1-1   ^;oo 


^  cc  !-«  X  cc  oa 


X  CC  i-H  rr  O  ?D  .-« 


,^H 

-« 5 

H  0 

«  K 

rt^ 

"^t: 

S  0  ^ 

£  0 

a  B 

a  S 

^ 

•J  H 

-<  -< 

(d  J 

S5  H 

«^ 

S  J 

S  0 

a  0 

CO  3D  0>  CO  OT  0»  »<  O 

c^  o  :c  CI  ^  c:  e-  u-2 


X  -T  t-  ^ 


»0  QD  '^  CO  CO 

o  *r:  o  t^  ^-1 
mxo*3c» 


■-C  CO  t~  -0  •^ 

X  X  O  — "-1 
C0_^O,'T  iO  Ci 
COt^i-T 


xoeoi-irtcomooi-ocortoocxi 

CO'-'CS.OOSCOC^OOCOO'^'^T-^^rt 


rt    .  t-  -<  o  -^ 


§3 

J5  M 


cs^oiccot-oiinO'Hooo  —  o-t  —  Oi»T-.toxcO"-^oco 

t*OCO(?JCiO^*COO^^X0^^500*^0«0000  0^0^ 
C:  0^0 -^__iO  ^_^-*  i.-  O  C5  i- »J  1.-5  CO  CO  C-.  "-1  CO  i-i  ■-•  M  Ci  TI>  m  X  O^C:__ 


CO  CO  Ci  0>  {-  O?  CO  t-  0»  iO  f^  CO  5J  O  ^  —  t-  i-  X 


O  CD  X  "<t  O  X  Tf  CO  -rf  X  t-  1 


Ti  C5  CO  T»  TI^  "O 


to  i-  —  O  O  "J"  OJ 

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he 


tC: 


:-2£-5^|lll| 


■32 


^    '  C  *'^  tlj  f— • 


N  N  ^  S  :3  •:; 

"  "^  ji  ■/:  X  ::  Zj  7^  - 


G  i^  a  oj 


*!-; 


>;  r  -3  cs  i'-  ^  X  ^  •:: 


=  :3 


)x 


:3   i  03. 


104    SECONDARY  SCnOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY, 

in  the  secondary  schools  of  Prussia  who  were  pur- 
suing Latin  was  nine  times  that  of  the  pupils  not 
studying  it.  By  1892  the  proportion  had  so  changed 
that  the  ratio  was  only  five  to  one,  and  by  1894  the 
proportion  stood  three  Latin  pupils  to  one  non-Latin 
pupil.* 

In  Baden,  as  the  following  tabulation  indicates, 
the  pendulum  has  swung  steadily  in  the  non-Latin 
direction,  with  no  less  momentum  and  through  as 
great  amplitude  as  in  Prussia. 

Distribution  of  Piqnls  in  Varioiis  Classes  of  Schools  in 
Baden  from  1882  to  1895. 


Gymnasia. 

Real-gjmnasia. 

Real-schools. 

Total. 

1882-'83 

4,950  =  53.2^ 

5,262=47.7^ 
5,107  =  45.7^ 
4.759  =  43. 8;^ 
4,657  =  42.8^ 
4,548  =  41.  W 
4,494  =  39.6^ 
4,460  =  38.8^ 
4,421  =  37.9^ 

2,949  =  31.6^ 
2,565  =  23.2^ 
2,495  =  22.4/^ 
2.394  =  22.0^ 
2,376  =  21.9^ 
2,146=  19.4JS 
2,089  =  18.4;^ 
1,813=  15.7^ 
1,652  =  U.'2% 

1,406=  15.2^ 
3,212  =  29.1^ 
3,.564  =  31.9^ 
3,724  =  34.2^ 
3,838  =  35.3^ 
4,372  =  39.5^ 
4,773  =  42.0^ 
5,233  =  45.5^ 
5,578  =  47.9/^ 

9,305 

1887-'88 

11.039 

1888-'89 

11.166 

]889-'90 

10,877 
10,871 
11,066 
11,356 
11,.506 
11,651 

1890-'91 

1891-^93 

1893-'93 

1893-'94 

1894-^95  

Gustave  Wendt,  Baumeister's  Handbueh,  etc.,  p.  185. 


Baumeister's  Organisation  des  hoheren  Unterrichts,  pp. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

present  courses  of  study. 

1.  Introductory. — School  Programmes  in  Vari- 
ous States. 

We  shall  next  proceed  to  an  examination  of  the 
courses  of  study  in  the  secondary  schools  as  they 
appear  in  the  official  programmes  published  by  the 
several  states.  Although  there  is  quite  a  similarity 
among  the  courses  of  all  the  states,  especially  of  the 
four  kingdoms  (Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  AViirtem- 
berg),  yet  the  variations  forbid  the  taking  of  any 
single  one  as  a  standard  without  showing  the  differ- 
ences, and  justify  the  more  detailed  exposition  of 
each  one  separately.  However,  as  methods  of  teach- 
ing are  very  similar  and  the  aim  to  be  attained 
almost  identical  in  the  several  states,  the  variations 
will  be  exhibited  mainly  through  comparative  tables, 
and  a  general  discussion,  which  will  serve  for  all 
alike,  will  accompany  the  tables. 

The  courses  of  study  are  outlined  by  the  Minis- 
terium  of  each  state.  They  represent  the  exact 
amount  of  time  that  shall  be  given  to  the  individual 
subjects,  and  the  distribution  of  this  time  through- 
out the  school  course.  A  detailed  outline  always 
accompanies  the  time  table.  This  outline  indicates 
the  general  minimum  amount  of  each  subject  that 

165 


1G6    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

the  schools  are  expected  to  cover,  as  well  as  general 
ends  to  be  attained  and  methods  of  attaining  them. 
Of  course,  the  teachers  are  given  much  latitude  in 
the  method  of  procedure ;  in  fact,  older  teachers 
may  be  said  to  have  entire  freedom  in  this  respect. 
The  choice  of  parts  of  subjects  is  in  a  measure  left 
to  the  individual  schools ;  yet,  since  the  official  pro- 
grammes indicate  the  general  topics,  there  is  not 
much  variation  in  the  selection  of  topics  in  the  vari- 
ous schools  in  a  given  state.  Each  school,  in  the 
main  each  teacher,  is  left  free  in  the  selection  of 
text-books  and  the  appliances  to  be  used. 

The  courses  of  study  in  the  various  states  have 
essentially  the  same  end  in  view,  and  they  are  con- 
sidered to  be  of  equal  value.  This  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  certificate  from  a  gymnasium  in  any 
one  of  the  Bundesstaaten  is  recognised  (since  1889) 
as  giving  the  same  privileges  in  all  the  other  states. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  certificate  of  the  real-gym- 
nasia from  most  of  the  states.  However,  since  there 
is  considerable  diversity  among  courses,  some  are  not 
universally  valid,  but  are  recognised  only  in  the  state 
in  which  they  are  granted.  This  is  true  especially 
of  the  Wiirtemberg  real-gymnasium  certificates.* 
The  certificates  of  maturity  from  the  upper  real- 
schools  are  recognised  also  only  in  the  state  which 
issues  them.  All  higher  schools  have  essentially  the 
same  courses  in  religion,  German,  history,  and  geog- 
raphy, and  the  instruction  in  these  aims  to  reach 
the  same  ideals  in  all  the  different  forms  of  schools. 

*  See  Centralbliitt,  1889,  p.  224. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  1G7 

They  all  strive  to  develop  morality,  fidelity,  obedi- 
ence, and  love  for  the  Fatherland.  Through  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  functions  of  the  state  and  the  duty  of 
its  citizens  they  aim  to  develop  upright  citizens  and 
obedient,  country-loving  subjects.  The  school  pro- 
grammes show  a  great  preponderance  of  national 
and  local  geography  and  history.  Enough  of  for- 
eign civilization  is  treated  of  to  insure  a  proper  per- 
spective in  studying  governments,  and  also  to  give 
in  these  matters  the  fundamentals  of  instruction 
necessary  to  liberal  culture.  The  hr^^h  position  to 
which  art  and  music  have  attained  in  Germany  re- 
ceives assurance  of  continued  security  by  the  lofty 
ideals  inculcated  in  the  minds  of  pupils  through- 
out the  course.  The  a3sthetic  culture  to  be  derived 
through  subjects  of  school  study  is  nowhere  so  suc- 
cessfully imparted  as  in  Germany.  History,  litera- 
ture, Xature  studies,  and  even  mathematics,  provide 
material  for  gesthetic  culture  as  well  as  intellectual 
development. 

It  will  be  noticed  from  the  comparative  table  that 
there  is  a  great  similarity  among  gymnasial  courses 
throughout  the  different  states  of  the  empire.  There 
are  no  very  great  deviations  except  in  Wiirtemberg, 
which  has  in  its  programme  eighty-one  hours  of  Latin 
and  forty  hours  of  Greek,  being  from  ten  to  fifteen 
hours  more  of  Latin  and  about  four  hours  more  of 
Greek  than  the  average  amount  in  the  other  states. 
There  are  apparent  variations  in  the  amounts  of 
natural  science  and  in  the  history  and  geography 
work  given  in  the  various  states,  but  those  differ- 
ences arise  principally  because  of  the  different  ways 


1G8    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Table  shou'ing  Amount  of  Time  devoted  to  Each  Subject  in 
the  (Ji/mnasia  of  Eight  States. 


Religion 

German 

Latin 

Greek 

French 

History 

Geography  

Nature  lessons.. 

Physics 

Chem.  and  niin. 

Matliematics 

Writing 

Drawing 

Singing 

Gymnastics 

English 


Hebrew. 


4 

•z 

g 

i  ^ 

g 

h 

£ 

& 

1 

^^ 

;§ 

B 

i' 

19 

18 

20 

18 

18 

18 

20 

2(J 

27 

25 

30 

22 

27 

2.1 

C3 

06 

73 

81 

72 

68 

71 

3G 

36 

42 

40 

30 

30 

40 

19 

10 

18 

18 

20 

23 

24 

;» 

16 
9 

18 
9 

'-23 

[26 

}- 

20 

1  •• 

8 

5 

8 

6 

10 

10 

[24 
J 

[10 

7 

8 

8 

!-« 

i« 

34 

20 

33 

30 

33 

3.5 

36 

4 

4 

3 

7 

4 

5 

4 

8 

4 

10 

7 

10 

8 

4 

4 

6 

4 

14 

18 

27 

18 

18 

10 

18 

* 

(4e 

6e 

6e 

8e 

4e 

6e 

-or 

or 

or 

or 

or 

4e 

Oe 

6e 

8e 

4e 

6e 

^.3 

■«! 

18 
25 
71 
36 
24 

(-25 


Note. — The  hours  indicate  an  equivalent  of  so  many  hours  per  week 
for  one  year — e.  g.,  five  hours  =  to  five  hours  a  week  for  one  year,  or  one 
hour  a  week  for  five  years  :  or  again,  sixty-two  hours  (for  Latin  in  Prus- 
sia) means  sixty-two  hours  a  week  for  one  year,  or  nearly  seven  hours 
per  week  for  nine  years,  etc.  e  —  elective. 

*  Not  continued  in  all  places  on  account  of  lack  of  appliances. 

Table  showing  Amount  of  Time  devoted  to  Each  Subject  in 
the  Real-Gymnasia  of  Seven  States. 


Religion 

Latin 

German 

French 

English 

History 

Geography 

IMatliematics . . . 
Natural  history 

Phj-sics 

Chem.  and  min. 

Writing 

Drawing 

Singing 

Gymnastics 


29 
20 
13 
16 
10 
38 

7 

6 

5 

4 

23 

Opt. 

18 


14 

7U 
20 
27 
11 

-22J 

59 

8i 


5 

25i 


18 
53 
28 
31 
18 

[30 

42 
12 
12 


16 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 


1G9 


Table  shoit'ing  Amount  of  Time  given  to  Each  Branch  in 
the  Real-Schools  of  Eight  States. 


Religion 

(ieniian 

French 

English 

Aritli.  and  algebra.. 
<  )tht'r  mathematics. . 

History 

(.ieography 

Nature  lessons 

Physics 

Cliem.  and  min 

Writing 

Drawing  

Singing 

Gymnastics 


.s 

.3 

>. 

H 

g. 

1 

3  -a 

fi 

& 

is 

1^ 

a 

^ 

13 

12 

15 

* 

18 

18 

12 

28 

27 

31 

39 

28 

23 

.31 

27 

28 

46 

30 

So 

13 

10 

16 

24 

12 

13 

;-2s 

13 
18 

1-3, 

53 

23 

11 

14 

19 

;-i9 

« 
10 

;^ 

17 
10 

12 

12 

21 

10 

6 

10 

10 

8 

12 

8 

7 

(« 

13 

6 

4 

6 

8 

6 

2 

6 

3 

7 

6 

6 

6 

10 

23 

12 

16 

14 

8 

u 

12 

9 

12 

12 

18 

12 

12 

18 

12 

12 

12 
29 
28 
14 

^30 

10 
13 
10 


*  The  courses  of  the  ten  real-schools  with  two  additional  years  cor- 
respond to  the  first  eight  classes  of  the  higher  real-schools.  Besides 
these,  there  are  sixty-three  schools  witn  various  plans.  (Rethwisch, 
op.  cit.,  p.  130.) 

of  dividing  the  subjects.  One  school  may  have  much 
under  the  head  of  Xature  lessons  and  little  under 
the  topic  physics,  while  in  another  case  it  may  be  Just 
the  reverse.  Still  the  two  may  give  almost  identical 
courses,  since  there  is  no  sharp  dividing  line  between 
the  sciences,  and  much  of  physics  may  be  included 
under  the  term  Xature  lessons,  and  vice  versa. 

The  most  noticeable  differences  between  the 
gymnasia  and  the  real-gymnasia  are  in  the  relative 
amounts  of  the  classics  and  the  sciences.  The  real- 
gymnasia  have  abandoned  all  Greek  and  very  mate- 
rially reduced  the  amount  of  required  Latin.  More 
mathematics  and  natural  science  are  introduced, 
while  the  general  fundamental  studies  remain  about 
the  same  in  the  two.  Many  of  the  gymnasia  offer 
no  chemistry  nor  mineralogy,  while  all  the  real-gym- 


170    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

nasia  offer  of  these  about  three  liours  weekly  through 
a  period  of  three  years.  More  thorough  work  is 
given  in  the  real-gymnasium  in  physics,  and  in 
mathematics  usually  one  year  of  five  weekly  hours  is 
offered  in  analytic  geometry  and  descriptive  geom- 
etry. The  real-gymnasium  has  fully  fifty  per  cent, 
more  time  devoted  to  French  than  the  gymnasium, 
and  English  is  taken  as  a  required  study  three  hours 
weekly  during  the  last  six  years  of  the  course. 

The  real-school  curriculum  is  similar  to  the  first 
six  years  of  the  real-gymnasium  courses,  with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  real-school  course  contains  no  Latin 
but  more  French  during  the  corresponding  years. 

The  higher  real-school  contains  three  years  addi- 
tional to  the  ordinary  real-schools  and,  as  previously 
stated,  prepares  for  entrance  to  the  university  in  the 
natural  sciences  and  mathematics.  Pupils  who  have 
completed  a  real-school  course  may  enter  a  higher 
real-school  of  another  city  for  the  last  three  years  of 
the  work  if  no  higher  real-school  is  located  in  their 
own.  The  progymnasium  takes  up  the  first  six  or 
seven  years  of  a  gymnasial  course,  and  is  advanta- 
geous in  that  pupils  may  enter  a  gymnasium  and  com- 
plete their  preparation  for  the  university ;  the  real- 
progymnasium  takes  up  the  realistic  side  of  the  work 
and  is  simply  the  first  six  or  seven  years  of  a  real- 
gymnasium. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  and  reference  I  sub- 
Join  detailed  official  programmes  of  Prussia,  Saxony, 
Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Wiirtemberg,  An  attempt  is 
made  to  exhibit  all  the  different  types  of  secondary- 
school  curricula  existing  in  the  empire.     The  cities 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY. 


171 


must  all  conform  to  state  requirements  unless  spe- 
cially permitted  to  make  minor  deviations  therefrom 
to  suit  local  needs.  Whatever  deviations  there  are 
from  general  state  regulations  are  very  slight. 

Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Prussian 
Gymnasia  {since  1892). 


VI 


IV    L.  Ill  U.  Ill    L.  II   U.  II  L.  I    u.  I 


Religion 3        " 

German 4        3 

Latin 8       8 

Greek 

French  

History (  „     I  o 

Geography )         I  " 

Mathematics 4       4 

Physics 

Elementarj'       nat- 
ural science 2        2 

Writing 2        2 

Drawing 2 

Gymnastics 3        3 

English 


Hebrew. 


Total* 25      25 


30       30       30      28 


252 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Baden 
Gymnasia  {since  1SS3). 


VI 


IV      L.  Ill    U.  Ill    L  II  U.  II    L.  I     U.  I 


Religion 2 

German 3 

Latin 9 

Greek 

French  

History 

Geography 2 

Mathematics 4 

Natural  science 2 

Phil,  propfedeutics.  .. 
Hebrew  (elective). .  . . 
English  (elective)..   .. 

Writing 2 

Drawing 2 

Singing 2 

Gymnastics 2 


(2) 
(2) 


(2) 
2 


4 
2 

(2^ 
(2) 

(2) 
2 
2 


1 

(2) 
(2) 

(2) 
2 
2 


4 
2 
1 

(2) 
(2) 

(2) 
2 
2 


Total  * 26      26      27       31        31        30      30      30      30 


36 
20 
18 

8 
33 
18 

2 
(8) 
(8) 

4 
10  +  (8) 
14 
18 


261 


*  Exclusive  of  electives,  singing,  and  gymnastics. 
13 


172    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  JJach  Studu  in  the  Gymnasia 
in  Saxonij. 


vr 


IV      L.IIIU.  I!I    L.  IIU.II    L.I     U.I      Total 


Religion 3        3        2 

German 4       3        3 

Latin 9       9       8 

Greek 

P"'rench 2 

History 2        2        5 

Geography 2       2       2 

Mathematics 3       4       3 

Natural  history 2       2       2 

Physics 

EngUsh  (elective) 

Hebrew  (elective) 

Drawing 2       2 

Writing 2        1 

Singing 2       2       2 

Gymnastics 2       3       2 

Total* 27      28      29 


2 

2 

2 

i2 

2 

2 

20 

2 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

25 

8 

8 

8 

- 

8 

8 

73 
43 

3 

•) 

2 

2 

2 

2 

18 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

18 

2 

] 

9 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

33 

1 

1 

8 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

(2) 

(3) 

(2) 

(6) 

or 

or 

or 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(6) 

2 

2 

2 

10 
3 

31        30      29      30      30 


18 


Weel-Jy  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Gymnasia  in 
Bavaria  {since  1S9T). 


VI 

V 

IV 

L.  Ill 

U.  Ill 

L.  II 

U.  II 

L.  I 

U.  I 

Total. 

Religion 

...     2 

2 

4 
8 

3 

1 

1 
2 

2 
3 

8 

3 
o 

T 

2 
1 

2 
2 

8 
6 

2 
2 

1 

2 

2 
2 

8 
6 

4 
o 

\ 
1 

'2 

0 
2 

6 
3 

4 

2 
2 

6 
3 

5 
2 

2 
3 

fi 
6 

5 
3 

2 

4 
6 
6 
2 

4 

3 

18 
27 

Latin 

...     8 

6G 
36 

10 

Arithmetic 

Mathematics 

Physics 

History 

Geography 

Nature  lessons. . . . 

'.'.'.  1 

33  . 

16 
9 
5 
4 

Writing 

...     2 

4 
18 

Total* 

...23 

23 

24 

25 

2G 

26 

27 

27 

27 

228 

*  Singing,  gymnastics,  and  electives  not  counted. 


PRESENT   COURSES  OF  STUDY. 


173 


Weelxhj  Hours  devoted  to  Eacli  Study  in  the  Wilrtemberg 
Gymnasia  {since  ISOl). 


VI 

V 

IV      I 

.  Ill 

U.  Ill 

L.  11 

U.  II 

L.  I 

U.I 

Total. 

Religion 

...    2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

18 

...     3 

8 

10 

2 
10 

2 

10 

2 

10 

8 

2 

8 

3 

8 

3 

7 

82 

Latin 

...10 

81 

Greek 

7 

~ 

7 

7 

() 

fi 

40 

French 

2 

2 

3 

3 

2 

o 

14 

Mathematics 

..     4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

4 

4 

4 

4 

34 

Physics 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

History 

2 

i 

U 

n 

2 

2 

2 

2 

14 

Geography  

...     1 

1 

1 

u 

H 

1 

7 

Nature  lessons  . . . 

...     2 

i> 

2 

6 

Drawing 

1 

2 

2 

5 

Writing 

o 

2 

o 

6 

Gymnastics 

2-3 

2-3 

2 

2-3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

18-20 

Total* 

...24 

26 

25 

31 

31 

31 

30 

29 

30 

257 

Philosophical  propjedeutics  obligatory  two  hours  weekly  in  Upper 
Prima.  Hebrew,  English,  New  Testament,  free-hand  drawing,  sabre 
practice,  or  Italian  niaj*  be  elected  as  an  hour  or  two  extra  from  Lower 
Seeunda  on.  Singing  one  hour  weekly  in  three  lowest  classes.  These 
would  increase  the  totals. 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  i)i  the  Prussia 
Real-Gymnasia  {1892). 


VI 

V 

IV 

L.  Ill 

U.  Ill 

L.  II 

U.  II 

L.I 

U.  I 

Total. 

Religion 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

German 

3) 

^/ 

and 

V 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

28 

History  (narratives^. 

if 

li 

Latin 

8 

H 

7 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

43 

French 

5 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

4 

31 

English 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

18 

Historv 

1  o 

12 

2 

0 

0 

!- 

l» 

/  0 

28 

Geographv  

»- 

(2 

2 

2 

1 

\-' 

Mathematics 

4 

4 

4 

r> 

5 

.T 

5 

5 

5 

42 

Natural  historv 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Phj'sics 

3 

3 

3 

3 

12 

Chem.  and  miu 

2 

2 

2 

6 

Writing 

2 

2 
2 

•1 

'2 

0 

'2 

"2 

■.i 

'2 

4 

Drawing 

14 

Smgmg 

2 

2 

4 

Gymnastics 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

27 

Total* 

25 

25 

29 

30 

30 

30 

50 

30 

30 

259 

*  Exclusive  of  singing  and  gymnastics. 


174   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Weeldy  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Studij  in  the  Bavarian 
lieal-Oymnasia  {1801). 


VI 


IV      L.  Ill    U.  Ill    L.  II  U.  II    L.  I    U.  I      Total 


Reliprion 2       2       2 

German 5        4       3 

Latin 8       8       8 

French  

English 

Arithmetic I  .,        „        o 

Mathematics )" '^       '^       "^ 

Physics 

Nature  lessons 1        1        1 

Chera.  and  min 

History 2 

Geography 2       2       2 

Writing...    2        1        1 

Drawing 2       2 

Gymnastics 2       2       2 


18 
27 
GO 
20 
13 

38 

G 

7 
5 
10 
10 
4 

23 
18 


Total* 23      23      24 


28       29      31      31      31 


Elective :  Italian,  instrumental  music,  singing,  stenography.  The 
first  three  years  are  the  same  as  in  the  gymnasia.  Several  i-eal-gyninasia 
have  only  the  last  six  years'  work,  and  admit  from  the  gymnasia  or 
from  Latin  schools. 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Saxony 
Real-Oyinnasia  {1897). 


VI 


IV      L.  Ill    U.  Ill   L.  II  U.  II    L.  I    U.  I      Total 


Religion 3 

German 4 

Latin 8 

French  

English 

Geography 2 

History 1 

Mathematics 5 

Physics 

Chemistry 

Natural  history 2 

Writing 2 

Drawing 2 

Singing 2 

Gymnastics 2 


Total* 29      32      31        32       32       32      32      31      31        290 


Stenography  elective. 
Not  counting  gymnastics  or  singing. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 


Weekhj  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Baden  Real- 
Gymnasia  {since  1887). 


VI 


IV      L.  Ill    U.  Ill   L.  II    U.  II    L.  I    U.  I      Total 


Religion 2       2       2 

German 3        3       2 

Latin 9        9       8 

French 4 

English 

Geography 2       2       2 

History 2 

Mathematics 4        4        3 

Pl^-sics 

Chemistry 

Natural  historj' 2       2        2 

Writing 2       2 

Drawing  2       2        2 

Singing 2        2        2 

Gymnastics 2       2        2 


Total* 26      26      27       30       30       30      30      30      30 


259 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Prussian 
Real- School. 


VI         V         IV       III        II          I 

Total. 

Change. 

Religion 3       2       2       2       2       2 

German (5        4        ,        a        a        3 

History  (narrative) ^1        1 

13 

28 

31 
13 

19 

28 
10 

s 
fi 

10 
4 
18 

±0 

+  7 

French 6        6       6       5       4       4 

English 5       4        4 

History    (  .,       „        2  1      2  '^     2  f      2  / 

Geography ('  ~        ~        2  )"     2  f     1  )"     2  1' 

Mathematics 4        4        5        5        5        5 

Natural  history 2       2        2       2       2      .. 

-9 
±0 

-3 

-1 
—  3 

Physics,  etc 3       5 

Writing 2        2        2       

Drawing 2        2        2        2        2 

±0 
-2 

Singing 2        2       

Gymnastics 3       3       3       3       3       3 

Total* 25      25      28      30      29      29 

166 

-13 

*  Singing,  electives,  and  gymnastics  not  counted. 


176    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


Weekli/  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Bavarian 
Heal- Schools  {since  1804). 


IV        III        II 


Religion 2       2 

German 6       5 

French (> 

English 

Arithmetic  4 

Geometry ' 

Physics 

Natural  history 2 

Chem.  and  min 

History 

Geograpliy 2       2 

Drawing 2       4 

Writing 2        1 

Gymnastics 2       2 


2 


Total*'. 26      26      26      27      32      32 


Totiil.     Cbaage. 


181 


+  1 
-  1 


+  1 


Stenography,  singing,  instrumental  music,  and  swimming  may  be 
elected. 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Saxony 
Real-Scliool. 


Religion 3 

German 8 

French 

English 

History 1 

Geography 2 

Natural  history 2 

Chem.  and  min 

Physics 

Mathematics 5 

Drawing 2 

Writing .3 

Gymnastics 2 

Singing 2 

Total* 26 


3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

U 

6 

() 

T^ 

4 

4 

33 

6 

6 

6 

5 

5 

28 

4 

4 

4 

12 

o 

o 

2 

3 

2 

n 

2 

2 

2 

2 

1 

1 

30 

3 

3 

6 

2 

2 

4 

4 

6 

6 

( 

7 

3.5 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

2 

2 

2 

9 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

12 

2 

2 

3 

1 

1 

10 

29 


31 


33 


34 


34 


186 


Stenographj'  elective  from  IV  class  on. 
*  Singing,  electives,  and  gymnastics  not  counted. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 


177 


WeeMy  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Baden 
Higher  Real-Schools. 


IV     L.  Ill    U.  Ill    L.  II    V.  II    L.  I    U.  I      Total, 


Religion 2       2       2  2 

German 6       5       4  4 

French 6       6       6  ti 

English 4 

History 2  2 

Geography 2       2       2  2 

Natural  history 2       2       2  2 

Chem.,  min.,  g'eol 

Physics 

Mathematics 5       5       5  5 

Drawing 2       2  2 

Writing 2       2       2 

Gymnastics 2       2       2  2 


18 
39 
46 
24 
17 
10 
10 

8 
13 
53* 
10 

(J 
18 


Total  t 25      26      27       29       30       30      31      31      31 


*  Includes  two  hours  weekly  projective  geometry,  or  "  Darstellender 
Unterricht,"  as  it  is  called. 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  each  Study  in  the  Higlier  Real- 
Schools  in  Prussia. 


IV     L.  Ill    U.  Ill     L.  II      U.  II    L.  I     U.  I      Total 


Religion 3        2       2 

German  and  /  4 1      3  1      . 

Historical  narrative  \  \  )      \  \ 

French 6        6        6 

English 

History \  c,       o      *  2 

Geography j'  ~       "     '/  2 

Mathematics 5       5        6 

Nature  lessons 2       2       2 

Physics 

Chem.  and  min 

Writing 2       2       2 

Drawing 2       2 

Singing 2       2 

Gymnastics 3       3       3 


2 

0 

3 

3 

6 

fi 

5 

4 

Totalt 25      25      28 


30      30 


*  The  six  years'  work  included  in  "a"  corresponds  to  the  real-school; 
that  included  in  "  b  "  is  additional  for  the  higher  real-school. 
t  Except  singing  and  gymnastics. 


178    SECONDARY  SCnOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  a  Combination 
Real-School  in  Prussia. 


Special 
for  buiiness 
IV     L.  Ill    U.  Ill    L.  II    U.  II     training.     L.  I    U.  I 


Religion 2     2     2 

German 6     5     4 

German  corre- 
spondence   

French 6     C      6 

French  corre- 
spondence  

French    conversa- 
tion  

English 

English  corre- 
spondence   

English  conversa- 
tion  

Italian 

Book-keeping 

History 2 

Geography 2     2     2 

Natural  history ...    2     2     2 

Chem.,  geol.,  min 

Physics 

Mathematics 5     5     5 

Drawing 2     2 

Writing      (stenog- 
raphy)      2     2     2 

Gymnastics 2     2     2 


18 
41 


2 

24 

2 

2 
9 
2 

17 
13 
10 
8 
13 
48 
16 

8 
20 


Total* 25    26    27 


29       30       28      31 


30    80       283 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Prussian 
Real-Progymnasia. 


VI 


IV 


III 


II 


Religion 3           2  2  2  2 

German  6           5  3  3  3 

Latin ..  7  4  4 

French 6            6  5  5  5 

EnglLsh 3  3 

History 2  2  2 

Geography 2           2  2  2  2 

Mathematics 4           4  4  5  5 

Natural    history    and  I      o           o  o  o  o 

Physics \      "           ^  ~  '^  '^ 

Writing 2  2 

Drawing 2  2  2  2 

Singing 2  2 

Total* 27         27  31  32  32 

*  Except  singing  and  gymnastics. 


13 
23 
18 
31 
9 
8 
11 
27 


4 
173 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 


179 


aoeoooDi-'i-oocaoi-ioco-'^ooco 

y-^  ZO  ■^  CO  G^  T-i  y-i  r^        t-i  »0  r^        y~^ 


p 

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.  C^  CO  I-  5* 

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TO 

J 

(Mcotojocoro    • 

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3 

6 

ojcooeocoKi    • 

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■  5}    . 

CO 

cjOT50-*co»i    •    -Wffjc-c*    -at 


atcoa:>-^natoiat    ■    ■•v>t    •*» 


INOTOO'fl'COfNOJei     •     •■*(?»     •« 


.J 

o 
o 
a 

O 
CO 

-<! 

3 

H 

ooo 

1-1  CO 

•lOt-t-OOODCOCOtDTtODOJ 

o 

P 

«-fl" 

■■*T»icO     •     -T^COt-O*     -OiOl 

CO 

J 

(N-i< 

•  T^i^co    ;    -iNcoi-s*    -a a 

53 

U.  II 

ffJT)< 

•■*Tl<CO      •      ;«COl>SI      -OJOJ 

TO 

OjTt*      'iO^Oi      '      '^Cil-OJ      ■©« 


(J!  ■^    •  lo  ■^  c>  cj  (Jj    •  oj  in  ffj    •  oj 


w*    •  to -rf <ii 0} Oi    •    'inffi    'IN 


oj  -^    ■  ic  CO  0?  cj  o»    •    •  tn  oj    •  ej  o? 


ojir,    -so    •    •siCJ    ■    -iniNOTUJOJ 


OJO     -O     •     •«»»     •     -in     •5JC*iN 


180    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


Weeldy  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Stufhj  in  the  Prussian 
Progymnasia. 


VI 

V 

IV 

III 

II 

I 

Total. 

3 

2 

2 

3 

2 

3 

13 

4 

•8 

3 

8 

3 

"4 

2 

1) 
3 

2 

<; 
3 

3 

(! 
3 

17 

Ijatin 

44 

18 

French 

13 

History 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Geography 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

9 

Natural  history 

a 

2 

2 

2 

8 

Physics,  chein.,  n)in.. 

2 

2 

4 

Mathematics 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

4 

22 

Writing 

•i 

2 

4 

Drawing 

2 

2 
o 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Singing 

2 

4 

Gymnastics 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

12 

25 

25 

28 

31 

31 

32 

172 

Weekly  Iloiirs  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Baden 
Progymnasium. 


VI 

V 

IV 

L.  Ill 

U.  Ill 

L.  11 

u.  11 

Total. 

Religion 

German 

2 
3 
9 

'2 

a 

"4 
2 
2 
2 
2 

3 
9 

'2 
2 

'4 
2 
2 
2 

3 

2 
8 

'4 

'2 
2 

'3 

'2 

'2 

B       -3 

a     « 
2-2 
2-2 

8-8 
6-0 
3-4 
2—2 

1—1 

2-2 

3-4 

2-2 
2-2 
2-2 

0—3 

i    -i 

=     « 
2-2 

2-2 

8-8 
6-0 
3-4 
2-2 
1-1 
2-2 

3-4 

2—2 
2-2 
2-2 

0-3 

1      -3 
S     ce 
2-3 
2—2 
8-6 
6-0 
3-4 
3-3 

2-2 

4-7 

2-2 

2 2 

2 3 

2-3 

or 

2-0 

2 

"s 

6 
3 
3 

2 

4 

'2 
"2 

1 

u 

14 
58 
24 
16 
10 

8 
10 

4 
25 

4 
14 
10 
14 

2 

2 

r 

14 
14 
56 

Greek 

French  

History 

Geography 

Natural  history . 

Physics,  etc 

Mathematics  . . . 

Writing 

Drawing 

Singing 

Gymnastics 

English 

Hebrew  

0 
19 
10 

8 
10 

4 
30 

4 
14 
10 
14 

9 

26 

26 

25 

31-30 

31-30 

32-31 

30 

201 

198 

This  is  a  programme  showing  a  school  that  carries  both  the  humanis- 
tic and  the  realistic  courses.  Pupils  from  this  may  enter  Upper  SeCunda 
of  the  corresponding  school  with  nine-year  coiu'ses. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY. 


181 


Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Frankfort 
Oymnasium  {since  Easter,  1892). 


VI 

V 

IV 

L.  Ill 

U    III 

L.  11 

U.  II 

L.  I 

U.I 

Total. 

Change, 

Religion 

3 

2 

3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

±    0 

German      and 

history  nar.. 

5 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

31 

+  10 

Latin 

10 

10 

8 

8 

S 

8 

52 

-25 

Greek 

8 

8 

8 

8 

32 

-   8 

Freneli 

() 

0 

(! 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

30 

+    9 

Hist,  and  freo^. 

o 

•) 

5 

3 

3 

o 

■> 

if 

2 

24 

-    4 

Matlieniatics. . 

5 

.0 

5 

4 

4 

3 

4 

4 

3 

37 

+    3 

Natural  hist.. » 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 

±    0 

Physics 

o 

2 

2 

2 

8 

±    0 

Writing: 

2 

o 

4 

+    0 

Drawing 

2 

2 

2 

2 

8 

+    2 

25 

25 

26 

28 

28 

30 

31 

31 

31 

255 

-  13 

Weekly  Hours  devoted  to  Each  Study  in  the  Frankfort 
Real-Gymnasium  {sitice  Easter,  1S92). 


VI 

V 

IV 

L.  Ill 

U.  HI 

L.  11 

U.  II 

L.I 

U.  I 

Total. 

Change. 

Rehgion 3 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

19 

±    0 

German      and 

hist,  nar 5 

4* 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

31 

+    4 

Latin 

8 

8 

6 

6 

6 

6 

40 

-  14 

French 0 

fi 

C. 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

3 

38 

+    4 

English 

6 

4 

4 

4 

18 

-    2 

Hist,  and  geog.    2 

2 

5 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

2. 

-    3 

Mathematics..    5 

5 

5 

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

42 

-    2 

Natural  hist. . .     2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

10 

—    2 

Physics 

3 

2 

2 

o 

9 

-    3 

Chemistry 

2 

2 

2 

6 

±    0 

Writing 2 

2 

4 

±    0 

Drawing 

2 

~ 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

16 

-    2 

25 

25 

26 

28 

28 

32 

32 

32 

32 

260 

-20 

Gymnastics,  three  hours  weekly  throughout.  Singing  in  VI  and  V, 
two  hours  weekly  ;  an  hour  and  a  half  weekly  for  rest  of  course  for 
pupils  who  can  sing.  Drawing  (elective),  two  hours  weekly  in  II  and  I. 
English  (elective),  two  hours  weekly  in  three  highest  classes  (gymna- 
sium).   Hebrew,  the  same  as  English. 


182    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

2.  OuTLixE  OF  Courses  of  Study. 
The  followin,!?  outline  of  courses  in  the  various 
branches  of  study  is  taken  from  the  programme 
{Lehrplan)  of  tlie  Leibnitz  Gymnasium  of  Berlin, 
1895-'96.  It  is  typical  of  all  gymnasia,  since  there 
is  little  variation  from  a  common  standard  in  the 
different  schools  of  the  country.  The  smaller  gym- 
nasia have  essentially  the  same  courses  as  the  larger.* 

A.  RELIGION. 

(a)    Vorschule. 

1st  class,  3  hours  weekly. f  Bible  history,  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  The  Ten  Commandments  without 
Luther's  comments.  Short  Bible  proverbs.  Lord's 
Prayer,  Morning  and  evening  prayer.  Church  hymns, 

£d  class,  3  hours.  History  of  Old  and  Xew  Tes- 
taments, Bible  proverbs.  Prayers  and  the  three 
hymns,  "  Ach,  bleib'  mit  deiner  Gnade " ;  "  Nun 
danket  alle  Gott  "  ;  "  Lobt  Gott,  ihr  Christen." 

3d  class,  3  hours.  Biblical  history  from  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  Church  creed  with  Luther's  com- 
ments.    Church  hymns  and  proverbs, 

(b)  Gymnasium. 
Sexta,  2  hours.  Biblical  study  from  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  Sixty  stories.  Preceding  each  of  the 
church  festivals,  the  appropriate  biblical  history  from 
the  New  Testament.  Learn  first  part  of  creed  with 
Luther's  comments.  Impressing  (Einpragicvg)  les- 
sons of  catechism  and  hymns. 

*  Bericht  iiber  das  Schuljahr  1895-'96,  Berlin,  1896. 
•j-The  number  of  hours  means  weekly  in  each  case. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  183 

Quinta^  2  hours.  History  of  the  Xew  Testament. 
Fifty  stories.  Explanation  and  learning  of  the  second 
part  of  the  creed  with  Luther's  comments.  Thirty- 
four  proverbs  as  in  Sexta,  with  six  new  ones. 

Quarta,  2  hours.  Succession  and  division  of  books 
of  Old  Testament  in  connection  with  reading  of  most 
important  sections.  History  of  Kingdom  of  God  as  ■■ 
given  in  the  Old  Testament.  Eeview  of  catechism 
learned  in  VI  and  Y.  Explanation  and  "Einprii- 
gung  "  of  the  third  division  of  the  creed. 

Lower  Tertia,  2  hours.  Names  and  divisions  of 
the  books  of  the  Xew  Testament.  Kead  book  of 
Matthew.  Eeview  previously  learned  catechism. 
Take  fourth  part  of  creed,  additional  proverbs.  Ee- 
view previous  hymns,  take  four  new  ones.  Explana- 
tion of  three  or  four  other  new  hymns,  at  the  same 
time  learning  individual  couplets.  Explain  three 
psalms. 

Upper  Tertia,  2  hours.  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
Most  important  parts  of  church  and  Eeformation 
history  in  connection  with  the  life  of  Luther.  Ee- 
view previous  catechism.  Memorize  fifth  part  of 
creed.  Proverbs.  Explanation  of  psalms  (three 
memorized).  Eeview  previous  hymns  with  explana- 
tion of  three  or  four  additional.  Learning  of  indi- 
vidual couplets. 

Loioer  Secunda,  2  hours.  Instruction  in  church 
doctrines  and  significance  of  orders  of  worship.  Life 
and  teachings  of  Jesus.  Biblical  teachings  of  Xcav 
Testament.  Eeview  catechism.  Proverbs,  hymns, 
psalms. 

Upper  Secunda,  2  hours.    History  of  Israel.    Fur- 


184    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

tlier  study  of  Old  and  Xew  Testaments.  Kead  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  Selected  parts  of  non-Paulinian 
letters.  Eeview  churcli  liymns,  psalms,  proverbs,  and 
catechism. 

Lower  Prima,  2  liours.  Study  writings  of  John, 
with  selected  readings  from  his  gospel.  Life  and 
writings  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  especially  Eomans, 
Corinthians,  Galatians,  and  Philippians. 

TT^jper  Prima,  2  hours.  Life  and  works  of  John, 
with  comprehensive  lectures  upon  his  evangelism. 
Eeformation  and  church  history.  Most  important 
teachings  of  the  Evangelical  Church.  Augsburg 
confession.  EevicAV  catechism.  Proverbs,  psalms, 
and  church  hymns. 

Xo  detailed  comments  upon  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion in  religion  will  be  offered.  Since  biblical  in- 
struction forms  no  part  of  our  public-school  cur- 
ricula, the  discussion  could  not  be  made  comparative, 
and  a  merely  expository  treatment  is  not  necessary. 

It  may  be  well,  however,  to  answer  a  question 
frequently  asked  me,  viz. :  Since  there  are  different 
religious  denominations,  how  is  it  possible  to  give 
instruction  that  avoids  creating  dissension  and  is 
acceptable  to  all  ?  Dissension  is  avoided  by  provid- 
ing teachers  of  religion  for  the  various  denomina- 
tions represented  in  the  schools.  This  is  made 
possible  by  employing,  in  many  cases,  clergymen  of 
the  city  to  give  instruction  in  religion.  It  does  not 
usually  necessitate  the  employment  of  many  teachers 
for  this  branch  in  a  given  school.  Seldom  more 
than  a  Protestant  and  a  Catholic — sometimes  a 
Jewish — teacher  are  necessary  for  the  same  school. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  185 

Very  frequently  the  pupils  in  a  school  are  nearly  all 
of  the  same  denomination.  It  is  also  to  be  noted 
that  attendance  upon  religious  instruction  is  not 
obligatory  if  given  by  a  teacher  of  a  faith  different 
from  that  of  the  pupil.  My  observations  led  me  to 
believe  that  the  greatest  harmony  prevailed,  and 
that  there  was  none  of  that  strife  between  church 
and  state  that  we  in  America  would  naturally  expect 
as  a  result  of  the  close  correlation  of  secular  and 
religious  instruction.  It  is  not  to  be  inferred  that  a 
similar  procedure  could  be  followed  in  this  country. 
Conditions  are  different,  and  the  question  has  been 
settled  in  a  way  apparently  best  fitted  to  meet  our 
own  peculiar  demands.  ]S'o  question  of  this  nature 
can  be  settled  upon  purely  a  priori  grounds.  All 
institutions  must  ultimately  be  adjusted  to  the  civ- 
ilization amid  which  they  exist. 

B.   CLASSICS. 
(«)  Latin. 

Sexta.,  8  hours.  Grammar,  with  the  greatest  stress 
upon  the  regular  verbs,  excluding  the  deponent 
verbs.  Word  values  from  reading  books.  Some  ele- 
mentary syntactical  rules  inductively  learned.  Trans- 
lation as  home  work.  Memorizing  individual  sen- 
tences. Pure  writing  in  Latin.  Weekly  half-hour 
thoughtful  consideration  of  content  of  text. 

Quinta,  8  hours.  Eeview  of  regular  grammatical 
forms.  Deponent  verbs.  Irregular  grammatical  forms, 
with  limitation  to  those  necessary.  Pronouns,  com- 
parison, numerals,  prepositions,  and  adverbs.     Some 


18G    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

syntactical  rules  as  necessity  demands.  Oral  and 
written  exercises  as  well  as  Latin  composition. 

Quarta,  7  hours.  Eeading,  first  semester,  three 
hours  ;  second  semester,  four  hours.  Cornelius  Xepos 
and  selections  by  0.  Kichter.  Exercises  in  constru- 
ing unj^repared  selections.  Translation  back  into 
Latin.  Phrases  and  synonyms  distinguished  in  the 
reading  lesson.  Grammar,  first  semester,  four  hours  ; 
second  semester,  three  hours.  Eeview  of  previous 
forms.  Case  forms.  Syntax  of  verbs  as  necessity 
demands.  Oral  and  written  translations  into  Latin. 
Every  three  weeks,  two  short  translations  as  writ- 
ten or  oral  class  "  extemporale."  Each  semester, 
three  written  translations  from  Latin  into  Ger- 
man. 

Lower  Tertia.,  7  hours.  Grammar,  three  hours. 
Eeview  and  extension  of  case  forms.  Eules  of  tense 
and  mode.  Oral  and  written  translations  from  War- 
schauer's  exercise  book.  Every  two  weeks,  an  "  ex- 
temporale "  or  "  Exerzitium "  (written  exercise)  in 
connection  with  reading.  Every  six  weeks,  a  written 
translation  into  German.  Eead  in  summer:  Caesar 
de  bello  Gallico,  I,- 1-128  ;  VI,  11-29.  AYinter  :  Caesar 
de  bello  Gallico,  II,  III,  IV. 

tipper  Tertia,  7  hours.  Explanations  and  exer- 
cises in  dactylic  hexameter.  Eeading  and  exercises 
as  in  L.  III.  Eeview  and  extension  of  mode  and 
tense  in  connection  with  the  syntax  of  verbs.  Use 
of  exercise  book  as  in  L.  III.  Eead  in  summer 
semester  :  Csesar,  de  bell,  civ.,  II,  1-19;  Ovid,  Metam., 
II,  1-328  ;  VII,  618-724.  Winter  semester :  Csesar, 
de  bell,  civ.,  Ill,  Avith  exceptions.      Ovid,  Metam., 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  187 

VI,  313-381 ;   X,  1-77 ;  XI,  1-GG ;  IV,  55-166 ;  V, 
341-571 ;  XIII,  750-899. 

Lower  Secunda,  7  hours.  Memorize  poetry.  As 
opportunity  affords,  rhetorical  rules  and  distinction 
of  synonyms  in  connection  with  reading.  Grammar, 
3  hours.  Eeview  and  extension  of  previous  Avork. 
Every  three  weeks,  two  short  translations  into  Latin 
in  connection  with  reading,  either  "  extemporale  " 
or  "  Exerzitium."  Every  six  weeks,  instead  of  class 
work,  a  written  translation  into  German.  Eead  in 
summer  semester :  Cicero,  de  imp.  Cn.  Pompeii ; 
Verg.,  ^n.,  1, 1-389  ;  Liv.,  lib.  XXI,  c.  1-31 ;  Cicero 
in  Catil.,  I,  III ;  Verg.,  .En.,  II,  250-558.  AYinter  : 
Liv.,  XXI,  c.  1-48 ;  Verg.,  ^n.,  I,  1-393  ;  II,  1-250 ; 
III,  1-191. 

Upper  Secunda,  6  hours.  Memorize  portions  of 
Vergil  or  Casar.  Ehetorical  and  grammatical  points 
in  connection  with  reading.  Every  two  weeks  a 
written  translation  into  Latin.  "  Content  "  lessons. 
Eead  Cicero's  Pro  Sext.  Eosc.  Am. ;  Vergil's  ^n., 

VII,  VIII  (with  exceptions).  III,  690-718,  IV ;  Sal- 
lust,  de  conj.  Catil.,  c.  21-61. 

Lower  Prima,  6  hours.  Eead  Cicero,  TuscuL,  I ; 
selected  letters  from  1st  and  2d  books.  Horace, 
history  which  relates  to  Maecenas  and  other  friends, 
also  history  relating  to  Eoman  states.  Eemainder 
of  work  as  in  U.  I. 

Upper  Prima.,  6  hours.  Tacitus'  Germ.,  and 
sections  from  Cgesar's  Gallic  War ;  Tacitus'  Annals,  I, 
II,  which  refers  to  Germany.  Poems  from  Horace 
wliich  have  a  close  relation  to  later  literature.  Se- 
lected letters  of  Cicero.  Livy,  I.  Philosophical 
14 


188    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

poems  of  Horace,  which  refer  to  moral  upbuilding. 
Memorize  portions  of  Horace.  Exj)lanation  of  im- 
portant rhetorical  rules.  Synonyms.  Translations 
into  Latin  bi-weekly.  Translations  into  German. 
"  Content  "  lessons.  Exercises  in  grammatical  and 
rhetorical  rules. 

{h)  Greek. 

Loiver  Tertia,  G  hours.  Eegular  grammar  of 
Attic  dialect  to  the  mute  verbs,  excepting  tlie  sec- 
ondary tenses.  Important  parts  of  sound  and  ac- 
cent in  connection  with  inflections.  Syntactical 
rules  learned  inductively  in  connection  with  read- 
ing. Oral  and  written  translations  into  Greek  every 
two  weeks  (seldom  as  home  work,  usually  in  class). 
Reading  according  to  Bellerman's  reading  book. 

TJ'pinr  Tertia^  6  hours.  The  secondary  tenses, 
liquid  verbs,  the  verbs  in  "m,"  and  the  important 
irregular  verbs  of  the  Attic  dialect.  Prepositions 
memorized.  Eeview  and  extension  of  lessons  in  U. 
III.  Important  rules  selected  in  connection  with 
reading.  Written  translations  every  14  days.  Read- 
ing Xenophon's  Anabasis,  I,  1-3,  II,  3-5,  IV. 

Lower  Secunda,  6  hours.  Syntax  of  nouns,  arti- 
cles, and  pronouns.  The  important  facts  relating  to 
mode.  Every  two  weeks  a  written  class  exercise. 
Occasionally  a  home  translation  from  Greek  into 
German.  Read,  Summer :  Xen.,  Anab,  IV,  V,  1 ; 
Homer's  Od.,  III.  Winter:  Xen.,  Hell.,  Ill,  IV, 
with  exceptions.  Homer's  Od.,  I,  II,  with  excep- 
tions.    Portions  of  Homer  memorized. 

Upper  Secunda^  6  hours.  Written  translations 
from  Greek  into  German,  in  connection  with  prose 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  189 

readings,  mode,  tense,  verbs,  infinitives,  participles. 
Read  selections  of  Xen.  A23omm.  ;  Herod.,  VII,  1st 
half,  IX ;  Homer's  Od.,  XIY-XVIII ;  Plato's  Apol- 
ology.     Parts  of  Homer  memorized. 

Loiver  Prima.,  6  hours.  Eead  Plato's  Lacli. 
Euth. ;  Demosthenes,  Phil.,  I ;  Homer's  II.,  XIX- 
XXI ;  Sophocles,  Ajax ;  Thncy.,  VI.,  with  excep- 
tions.    Homer's  II.,  I-V.     Eemainder  as  in  U.  I. 

Ujiper  Prima.,  6  hours.  Memorize  poetry.  Ee- 
view  grammar.  Translations  from  Greek  into  Ger- 
man from  book  or  from  dictation.  Eead  Plato's 
Protag. ;  Homer's  H.,  II,  IV,  VI-IX,  XVII-XXIV ; 
Soph.,  Ajax  ;  Dem.,  Phil.,  III. 

{c)  Hebrew  {piitionaX). 

Upper  Seciuida,  2  hours.  Elements  of  Hebrew 
grammar.  Eegular  verbs  with  suffixes,  nouns,  vo- 
cabulary.    Exercises  in  translation. 

Lower  Prima,  2  hours.     Combined  with  U.  I. 

Upper  Prima,  2  hours.  Irregular  verbs,  nouns, 
numerals.  Syntax.  Vocabulary.  Eead  Genesis  and 
Psalms. 

The  classics,  as  is  well  known,  form  the  back- 
bone of  the  gymnasial  course.  They  have  held  this 
distinction  for  hundreds  of  years  and  are  likely  to 
for  some  time  to  come.  For  many  lines  of  subse- 
quent study  they  are  tenaciously  held  to  be  indis- 
pensable. This  prejudice,  if  it  be  such,  will  not  be 
overthrown  easily.  Only  the  lapse  of  time  under 
modern  conditions  can  determine  their  right  to  re- 
main or  to  be  superseded. 

Of  the  details  of  method  I  shall  not  attempt  a 


190    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

discussion.  I  sliall  attempt  to  point  out  what  seem 
to  me,  from  personal  observation,  the  salient  fea- 
tures of  classical  instruction  in  German  schools,  and 
to  mention  something  concerning  the  changing  atti- 
tude toward  the  classics  in  Germany. 

The  general  aim  to  be  reached  is  an  understand- 
ing of  the  most  significant  classical  authors,  and 
discipline  in  the  logic  of  language  ("  Verstdndniss 
der  hedeutenderen  klassischen  SrltriftsteUer  der  Iso- 
mer 11  nd  der  (irieclien  und  spraclilicli-Jogische  Schu- 
luiKj^''  Lehrplan,  1891).  However,  it  is  stated  that 
the  rules  of  grammar  are  to  be  only  a  means  to  an 
end — that  of  reading  and  understanding  the  authors 
of  antiquity.  By  systematic  instruction  this  power 
of  logical  reasoning  is  to  be  strengthened  and  devel- 
oped, and  a  mastery  of  the  language  gained.  But 
the  higher  and  more  important  motives  are  not  to 
be  lost  sight  of.  The  main  object  is  to  create  in  the 
learners'  minds  higher  and  nobler  ideals  of  life,  and 
to  give  them,  through  acquaintance  with  the  ancient 
literature  and  history,  a  more  substantial  and  exten- 
sive historic  background.  This  only  can  give  sound- 
ness of  judgment  concerning  things  of  the  present. 
History,  literature,  geography,  and  language  (ancient 
and  modern)  are  correlated  into  a  solid  phalanx. 
"WTiatever  be  the  future  walk  in  life,  the  pupil  can 
not  fail  to  have  been  bettered  and  strengthened  by 
this  ideal  course.  The  future  philosopher  and  the 
scientist  require  this  background  for  a  proper  under- 
standing of  the  development  of  their  departments  ; 
for  the  future  philologist,  it  goes  without  saying  that 
it  is  indispensable  ;  the  historian  should  be  in  posses- 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  191 

sion  of  the  main  truths,  gained  either  in  translation 
or  at  first  hand,  and  the  future  politician  or  man  of 
affairs  can  not  fail  to  gain  in  critical  judgment  by 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  ancients. 

It  is  in  imparting  this  deeper  and  more  impor- 
tant insight  that  I  believe  the  Germans  excel  us.  We 
teach  the  language  for  its  own  sake,  and,  we  claim, 
to  cultivate  logical  thinking — both  purely  formal  ob- 
jects. But  the  important  ends,  the  formation  of 
sound  historical  judgment  and  the  inculcation  of 
higher  ideals,  those  things  that  really  educate,  we 
too  often  overlook. 

As  I  shall  attempt  to  show  concerning  history, 
likewise  in  the  classics,  those  factors  which  tend  to 
produce  fealty  to  government,  stability  of  purpose, 
and  conservatism  of  ideas  are  all  fostered.  This 
view  is  too  important  to  be  overlooked.  The  domi- 
nant questions  should  be  :  What  does  this  contribute 
toward  future  manhood  or  womanhood,  toward  indi- 
viduality, toward  citizenship  ?  I  would  not  have  the 
latter  confined  to  political  boundaries,  but  citizenship 
in  the  broadest,  most  far-reaching  significance. 

As  one  of  the  means  toward  this  end,  I  believe 
that  their  use  of  objective  ("  Anschauungs ")  ma- 
terial in  teaching  the  classics  needs  special  mention. 
As  in  modern  languages,  the  attempt  is  made  to 
place  the  pupil  in  the  midst  of  the  people  and  places 
which  he  is  studying.  When  studying  Rome,  he  is 
to  see  the  Eomans  as  they  were.  Eoman  soldiers 
and  citizens  had  distinctive  appearances  in  dress ; 
the  pupils  must  not  think  of  them  in  German  sol- 
diers' and  citizens'  dress.      Full  life-size  pictures  of 


192    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

a  Roman  soldier,  with  helmet,  shield,  greaves,  and 
battle-axe,  or  of  citizens  with  the  toga,  form  a  part 
of  the  objective  material  for  the  lesson  on  one  day. 
On  another  day  the  Roman  Forum  or  the  Athenian 
Parthenon  are  shown  in  drawings  on  a  large  scale. 
When  possible,  many  of  the  implements  of  war  or 
those  used  in  the  industries  are  brought  in  from  the 
museums  for  inspection. 

Greek  and  Roman  statuary  is  also  to  be  seen  on 
every  hand,  not  usually  in  the  schoolroom  indeed, 
but  accessible,  and  ancient  forms  of  architecture 
may  be  pointed  out  by  the  teacher  during  any  les- 
son. In  this  way  the  subject  becomes  full  of  in- 
terest and  reality.  It  assumes  an  ineffaceable  mean- 
ing not  to  be  lightly  esteemed.  I  have  often  ob- 
served its  correlation  with  mathematics,  as  well  as 
with  history — for  example,  in  connection  with  the 
Pythagorean  theorem,  the  conchoid  of  Xicomedes, 
or  the  octagonal  form  of  the  Roman  Forum. 

We  have  seen  from  the  study  of  the  development 
of  the  present  curricula  that  the  amount  of  time 
spent  upon  the  classics  is  a  constantly  diminishing 
quantity.  The  question  naturally  arises  :  What  will 
be  the  final  outcome  ?  Is  the  study  of  the  classics  to 
retain  its  present  preponderance,  or  is  it  to  be  made 
co-ordinate  with,  or  even  subordinate  to,  subjects  of 
more  modern  interest  ?  Xot  even  Germans  who  are 
the  best  acquainted  with  the  situation  would  venture 
unqualified  assertions.  Hence  it  would  be  presumptu- 
ous in  a  foreigner  to  make  too  sweeping  statements. 
However,  if  we  may  judge  of  the  future,  using  the 
past  changes  as  indices,  certain  conclusions  can  not 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  193 

be  escaped.  The  types  of  schools  have  been  gradu- 
ally but  definitely  changing  from  the  purely  classical 
schools  for  all  alike,  to  those  which  are  seemingly 
better  adjusted  to  the  diverse  needs  of  the  many. 
The  classical  schools  have  not  been  eliminated, 
but  other  schools,  semi-classical  and  non-classical 
in  character,  have  been  established  for  those  who 
needed  little  Latin  and  no  Greek,  and  those  who 
wished  neither.  More  modern  studies  have  been 
substituted  for  those  persons  who  need  special 
preparation  in  non-classical  directions.  Even  the 
classical  gymnasia  have  necessarily  modified  their 
curricula  to  suit  the  ever-changing  conditions  of 
civilization.  This  shows  us  the  simple  principle, 
which,  however,  too  many  entirely  overlook — name- 
ly, that  no  curriculum  of  subjects  can  ever  be  ar- 
ranged that  will  meet  the  needs  of  all  times  or  of 
all  countries,  or  even  the  needs  of  all  people  in  the 
same  country  at  the  same  time.  The  more  complex 
and  highly  organized  civilization  becomes,  the  more 
differentiated  must  the  curriculum  be  to  meet  the 
demands.  An  institution  is  an  evolutionary  growth  ; 
a  curriculum  is  a  result  of  evolution,  just  as  much 
as  an  individual,  or  just  as  much  as  a  people  for 
whom  schools  and  curricula  are  formed.  It  is  simply 
the  adjustment  of  relations ;  the  passage  "  from  an 
indefinite,  incoherent  homogeneity  to  a  definite,  co- 
herent heterogeneity."  * 

It  is  this  principle  that  ought  to  be  constantly 
borne  in  mind  when  studying  proposed  changes  in 

*  Spencer,  First  Principles,  1st  ed.,  p.  39G. 


194    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

our  own  school  curricula.  It  is  not  a  valid  argu- 
ment for  the  introduction  or  exclusion  of  certain 
features  to  say  that  Germany  does  so,  or  that  Eng- 
land does  otherwise.  The  study  of  other  countries 
certainly  should  aid  in  pronouncing  more  valid 
judgments,  but  the  question  must  be  worked  out 
from  the  local  (largely  national)  features  of  the 
case. 

The  strenuous  effort  in  Germany  to  secure  an 
"  Einheitsschule  "  having  a  common  basis  of  instruc- 
tion without  Latin  in  the  lower  grades  has  a  great 
significance.  Although  the  question  was  answered 
in  the  negative  in  the  Conference  of  1890,  and  it 
received  no  attention  in  the  Lehrplan  of  1891,  it  is 
still  before  the  people  and  receiving  much  discussion. 
Permission  was  even  received  from  the  government 
by  the  local  authorities  of  Erankfort  to  institute  a 
temporary  innovation  in  this  direction.  The  gymna- 
sium and  the  real-gymnasium  of  the  city  were  en- 
tirely reorganized.  The  main  features  of  the  curric- 
ulum (see  p.  181)  are  as  follows :  Latin  is  not  begun 
in  the  lowest  class  but  is  deferred  until  the  fourth 
(L.  Ill)  in  both  forms  of  school.  Greek  is  deferred 
in  the  gymnasium  until  the  sixth  year  (L.  II)  instead 
of  having  it  begin  as  usual  in  IV.  In  place  of  Latin 
in  the  lower  classes  Erench  is  taken  from  the  begin- 
ning and  carried  through  the  course.  A  greater 
number  of  hours  (six)  is  given  to  it  in  the  lower 
grades  and  a  smaller  number  of  hours  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  course.  The  total  is  essentialh^  un- 
changed. In  the  real-gymnasium  English  is  taken 
through  the  last  four  years  only,  instead  of  through 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  195 

six,  but  the  total  is  the  same,  a  greater  number  of 
weekly  hours  being  given  than  formerly.  Latin  and 
Greek,  when  begun,  also  have  an  exceedingly  large 
amount  of  time  given  them  weekly.  Latin  has  ten 
hours  weekly  for  two  years,  and  eight  hours  for  the 
remaining  four  years.  Greek  occupies  eight  hours 
weekly  through  four  years.  The  advantages  claimed 
for  this  system  are  these  :  Xo  two  foreign  languages 
are  being  studied  in  their  elementary  stages  simulta- 
neously. One  is  pretty  well  conquered  before  another 
is  begun.  Again,  more  intensive  work  is  put  upon 
each  when  once  begun.  Lastly,  probably  of  prime 
importance,  an  easy  living  language  is  substituted 
for  a  difficult  obsolete  one,  during  the  period  when 
the  child  mind  is  least  able  to  cope  with  difficult 
grammatical  abstractions.  During  this  period  his 
mind  is  most  plastic  and  hence  pre-eminently  fitted 
to  acquire  language  by  the  natural  method.  The 
easy  is  placed  in  the  more  tender  years  and  the  diffi- 
cult in  the  period  when  the  mind  can  better  grapple 
with  difficulties,  instead  of  the  reverse  arrangement. 
This  plan  is  now  in  operation  in  the  Leibnitz  Gymna- 
sium, Hanover,  in  Altona,  Magdeburg,  and  Iserlohn, 
and  it  is  contemplated  in  Liibeck,  Lichtenburger 
and  many  other  places.* 

So  far  as  can  be  seen,  the  plan  meets  with  great 
satisfaction.  The  first  class  of  graduates  will  leave 
the  Frankfort  school  soon,  and  it  will  not  be  long  be- 
fore the  system  will  have  had  a  thorough  trial.  Ac- 
cording to  Professor   Paulsen's   views,  there  is    no 

*  Program  II,  Kealschule,  Frankfort,  1896-97. 


196    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

reason  why  Latin  may  not  bo  put  off  until  much 
later  than  Sexta.  He  Avrites  that  "  Latin  grammar 
is  undoubtedly  too  severe  for  nine-year-old  boys, 
and  not  the  best  mental  food  at  that  age.  Some 
can  digest  it,  others  suffer  from  it.  The  stream  of 
red  ink  that  daily  is  poured  over  the  '  extemporale ' 
exercises  of  the  boys  in  Sexta,  Quinta,  and  Quarta 
cries  out  toward  Heaven."  * 

Professor  Paulsen  believes  that  the  elements  of  a 
modern  language  taught  orally  would  be  much  easier 
learned  than  the  classics,  and  if  it  had  been  usual 
to  begin  Latin  in  Tertia  no  one  would  for  a  moment 
think  of  beginning  it  in  Sexta.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
it  was  customary  to  make  the  very  first  instruction 
Latin ;  now  the  first  instruction  is  in  the  mother 
tongue,  but  the  custom  of  making  Latin  the  first 
foreign  language  still  prevails.  He  further  says  :  "  I 
believe  the  growing  distance  from  the  Middle  Ages 
and  the  increasing  significance  of  the  modern  lan- 
guages will  cause  us  to  break  even  with  this  custom, 
as  has  already  been  the  case  with  neighbouring  na- 
tions." f 

There  will  be,  he  adds,  J  a  gradual  changing  of 
the  classical  gymnasia  into  real-gymnasia.  A  large 
number  of  classical  schools  will  be  necessary  for 
some  time  to  come.  "  For  always  ?  I  believe  not." 
Professor  Paulsen  cites  his  own  early  training  *  to 
prove  that  the  classics  may  be  begun  at  a  much  later 
period  than  Sexta.     He  was  a  farmer  boy  and  at- 

*  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  II,  p.  617. 

f  Loc.  cit.,  p.  618.       X  J^oc.  cit.,  p.  618.     *  Loc.  ciL,  p.  619. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  197 

tended  the  village  school  until  about  seventeen  years 
old.  He  then  entered  the  Altona  Gymnasium  in 
Secunda,  finishing  the  entire  course  in  three  years 
more.  He  had  begun  Latin  at  fifteen  and  a  quarter 
years  of  age  by  private  instruction,  at  the  same  time 
continuing  in  the  village  Volksschule.  At  sixteen 
he  began,  also,  Greek,  Hebrew,  French,  English, 
and  Danish.  This  shows  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
begin  Latin  at  nine  years  and  Greek  at  eleven. 

C.   MODEEN  LA^'GUAGES. 

(a)  French. 

Quarfa,  4  hours.  Elementary  reading  book,  les- 
sons 1-32.  Eeading  exercises  and  attempts  at  speak- 
ing. Eegular  conjugation  in  the  indicative  mode 
of  avoir  and  efre.  Articles  in  the  nominative  and 
accusative.  Gender  and  declension  of  nouns.  Eeg- 
ular and  irregular  comparison  of  adjectives.  Nu- 
merals, adverbs,  and  conjunctive  pronouns.  Dic- 
tation exercises,  "  extemporale,"  and  written  work 
alternating  every  two  weeks. 

Lower  Tertia,  3  hours.  Plotz's  elementary  read- 
ing book,  lessons  33-51.  Grammar,  lessons  2-25. 
Eeview  of  regular  conjugations  of  avoir  and  etre. 
Conjunctions,  verbs  with  cer,  ger,  etc.  Necessary 
irregular  verbs  and  pronouns.  Dictation  exercises, 
"extemporale,"  and  written  work  alternating  every 
three  weeks.  Conversation  exercises.  Eead  from 
elementary  reading  book.     Selected  poetry. 

Upper  Tertia,  3  hours.  School  grammar,  lessons 
26-33.     Irregular  verbs,  omitting  the  less  important 


198    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

composite  verbs.  Use  of  luixiliaries  avoir  aiul  Hre. 
Order  of  words.  Tenses  in  the  indicative  and  sub- 
junctive modes.  Written  and  oral  translations  into 
French.  Dictation  lessons,  "  content  "  lessons,  and 
conversation.  Eead  Erckmann-Chatrian's  Histoire 
d'un  Conscrit  de  1813,  or  Choix  de  nouvelles  mo- 
dernes,  and  Au  coin  du  feu. 

Lower  Secimda,  2  hours.  School  grammar,  les- 
sons 54-72.  Conjunctions,  adjectives,  adverbs,  arti- 
cles, prepositions,  participles,  infinitives.  Eevievv 
pronouns.  Written  and  oral  translations  into  French 
and  conversation  exercises.  Read  selected  narra- 
tives.    Sandeau's  Mile,  de  la  Seigliere. 

Upper  Secunda,  2  hours.  Review  grammar  in 
connection  with  oral  translations  into  French. 
Every  four  weeks  a  translation  from  French  into 
German.  Conversation.  Read  Daudet's  Le  Petit 
Chose,  Racine's  Phedre,  Merimee's  Colomba.  Selec- 
tions from  French  poets.  La  Fontaine,  Beranger, 
Fr.  Coppee. 

Loioer  Prima,  2  hours.  Read  Pailleron's  Le 
Monde  on  Ton  s'ennuie,  Moliere's  Le  Malade  Imagi- 
naire,  D'Herisson's  Journal  d'un  officier  d'ordon- 
nance.  Poems  selected  from  La  Fontaine,  Victor 
Hugo,  Fr.  Coppee. 

Upper  Prima,  2  hours.  Review  grammatical 
rules  in  combination  with  oral  translation  into 
French.  Every  four  weeks  a  translation  from  French. 
Conversation.  Read  D'Herisson's  Journal  d'un  offi- 
cier d'ordonnance,  Moliere's  I'Avare. 


PRESENT   COURSES  OF  STUDY.  199 


(/;)  Fiir/lish  {elective). 

Ui^per  Secumla.,  2  hours.  Grammar  is  given  in 
Bando,  Lehrbuch  tier  Englischen  Sprache.  Read 
first  part  of  this  book  and  Burnett's  Little  Lord 
Fauntleroy. 

Loioer  and  Upper  Prima.,  2  hours.  (Work  ar- 
ranged together,  but  it  is  taken  two  hours  each  year.) 
Read  Dickens's  Sketches,  Burnett's  Little  Lord  Faunt- 
leroy, Shakespeare's  Julius  Caesar,  Byron's  Prisoner 
of  Chillon,  Mazeppa. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  course  in  English 
that  it  is  only  a  side  issue  in  the  gymnasia.  It  is 
elective,  and  consequently  is  often  omitted  because 
of  the  press  of  other  work.  Future  theological 
students  alwa3's  take  Hebrew  instead.  The  following 
outline  of  work  from  the  Leipzig  real-gymnasium 
will  indicate  the  scope  and  character  of  the  work 
done  in  the  best  real-gymnasia  and  higher  real- 
schools. 

English  in  Leipzig  Real-Gymnasium. 

Loiver  Tertia,  3  hours.  General  introductory 
work.  Weekly  a  written  or  oral  "  extemporale  "  in 
connection  with  the  reading  lessons.  Talks  about 
spring  or  a  farmyard. 

Upjjer  Tertia^  3  hours.  Reading  Book,  Part  II 
(Zimmerman).  Selections  from  Herrig's  Reading 
Book  and  Burnett's  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy.  Con- 
versation exercises.  A  weekly  written  exercise,  pre- 
pared or  "  extemporale." 


200    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Lower  Secunda,  3  hours.  Zimmerman's  Reading 
Book,  systematic  course,  lessons  30-54.  Selections 
from  Herrig's  Reading  Book.  Tales  from  the 
Alhambra,  Irving.     A  weekly  written  exercise. 

Upi^er  Secunda^  3  hours.  Schmidt's  Grammar  of 
the  English  Language,  Part  I ;  Syntax,  G9-144. 
Review  of  etymology.  Read  Herrig's  Classical  Au- 
thors, Irving's  English  Sketches.  A  weekly  written 
exercise  (prepared  or  "  extemporale  "). 

Lower  Prima.,  3  hours.  General  review  of  the 
work  done  in  L.  II.  Continuation  of  Schmidt's 
Grammar  of  the  English  Language,  Part  II;  Syn- 
tax, 145-215.  Every  two  weeks  a  written  exercise, 
"  exercitium,  extemporale,"  or  an  elective  exercise. 
Read  from  Herrig's  Classical  Authors,  and  from 
Macaulay's  Lord  Clive. 

Upper  Prima.,  3  hours.  Schmidt's  Grammar  of  the 
English  Language,  Part  II ;  Syntax,  215-254.  Re- 
view the  work  of  L.  I.  Oral  exercises  as  in  Schmidt. 
Every  two  weeks  a  written  exercise  (translation,  "  ex- 
temporale," or  elective  work).  Read  selections  from 
Herrig's  Classical  Authors,  parts  of  Milton's  Paradise 
Lost,  Shakespeare's  Coriolanus,  cursory  reading  of 
History  of  English  Literature. 

A  Modern  languages,  especially  French,  have  con- 
siderable time  devoted  to  them.  In  the  humanistic 
gymnasia,  where  so  much  time  is  given  to  Latin  and 
Greek,  a  less  amount  of  time  is  given  to  the  modern 
languages  than  in  the  realistic  schools  of  various 
forms.  But  even  in  the  classical  schools  French  is 
studied  to  an  extent  that  would  seem  considerable  in 
American   schools.     The   average    amount   of  time 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  201 

allowed  for  it  in  the  various  States  is  a  little  above 
twenty  weekly  hours,  or  with  us  that  would  mean  a 
daily  lesson,  five  hours  a  week,  for  four  school  years. 
When  we  consider  that  freshmen  and  soj)homores  in 
college  acquire  a  good  reading  knowledge  of  French 
in  two  years,  or  even  quite  a  fair  knowledge  in  one 
3^ear,  it  means,  even  considering  the  younger  age  at 
which  the  first  part  of  the  work  is  done  in  German 
schools,  that  quite  a  degree  of  proficiency  ought  to 
be  attained  in  the  long  period  devoted  to  it  in  Ger- 
man schools.  And  such  is  tlie  case.  Before  the  end 
of  the  course  the  boys  read  and  sj^eak  French  with 
quite  an  enviable  fluency.  Prussia  has  nineteen 
hours  of  French  in  its  course  of  study.  Saxony  and 
"Wiirtemberg  eighteen  hours  each,  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  and  Alsace-Lorraine 
twenty-four  hours  each,  Hesse  twenty-three,  Baden 
twenty,  while  Bavaria  brings  up  the  rear  with  only 
ten  hours. 

The  real-gymnasia,  which  have  no  Greek  in  their 
courses,  and  have  nine  years  of  work,  the  same  as 
the  gymnasia,  increase  the  number  of  liours  quite 
materially.  The  average  number  of  hours  in  all 
the  eight  principal  states,  Bavaria  excepted,  is  about 
thirty.     In  Bavaria  only  twenty  hours  are  offered.  * 

The  real-schools  (with  courses  of  only  six  years) 
have  varying  numbers  of  hours  set  apart  for  French. 
Mecklenburg  leads  the  list  with  a  total  of  thirty-five 
hours,  while  Bavaria  has  only  twenty-seven.     Prussia 

*  This  deviation  in  Bavaria  is  unexplainable,  since  the  other 
studies  have  no  extra  hours  to  compensate.  Bavaria,  it  will  be 
seen  from  the  table,  has  a  lighter  course  throughout. 


202    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

has  thirty-one  hours,  tliat  being  about  tlie  average 
for  all  Germany.  Iligher  real-schools  have  a  still 
larger  amount  of  time  for  French.  I'russia  gives,  in 
addition  to  the  thirty-one  hours  in  the  real-school 
proper,  four  hours  a  week  in  each  of  the  upper  classes 
beyond  the  real-schools.  This  makes  a  total  of  forty- 
seven  weekly  hours  ! 

The  subject  is  begun  in  the  humanistic  gymnasia 
usually  with  Quarta  (at  the  latest,  Lower  Tertia), 
and  continued  throughout  the  course  with  an  average 
of  nearly  three  hours  weekly.  This  class  of  school, 
having  so  much  Latin  and  Greek,  aims  to  have  only 
one  foreign  language  begun  at  a  time,  and  starts  with 
Latin  in  Sexta,  deferring  Greek  until  a  year  later 
than  French.  English  is  begun  somewhat  later  in 
the  course,  but  during  the  last  three  or  four  years  of 
a  boy's  life  in  the  gymnasium  he  is  completely  satu- 
rated with  linguistic  training.  He  is  almost  sure  of 
three,  and  usually  has  four,  foreign  languages  to 
battle  with  at  the  same  time.  If  the  pupil  does  not 
elect  English,  which  is  optional,  he  may  elect  He- 
brew, and  in  some  states  Spanish,  Italian,  etc.,  are 
offered.  These  in  addition  to  his  own  mother  tongue. 
There  are  always  fourteen  or  fifteen  hours  per  week 
of  required  language  work,  and  when  English  or 
Hebrew  is  elected  the  amount  is  swelled  to  sixteen 
or  seventeen  hours.  Saxony  requires  seventeen 
hours,  and  offers  two  hours  elective  Avork.  Thus  the 
German  gymnasia  require  about  as  many  hours  of 
language  training  in  their  courses  as  we  have  for  all 
studies  combined.  Besides  the  foreign  languages, 
they  require  from  two  to  four  hours  weekly  study  of 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  203 

the  mother  tongue.  Then  come  mathematics,  with 
an  average  of  about  one  lesson  a  day  throughout  the 
entire  period  of  school  life,  some  science,  a  continuous 
draft  of  time  for  religion,  obligatory  gymnastics ;  and 
then  considerable  time  and  energy  is  to  be  devoted 
to  drawing,  writing,  singing,  etc.  Should  American 
boys  be  obliged  to  undertake  so  heavy  a  burden  of 
studies,  I  fancy  there  would  soon  be  a  cry  of  inhuman 
treatment  arising  from  tens  of  thousands  of  fond 
parents.  Even  in  Germany  the  cry  of  "Uberbiir- 
dung"  has  been  heard  from  all  quarters,  and  the 
"  tJberbiirdungsfrage,"  together  with  the  clamour  for 
more  practical  arts  and  sciences  and  less  of  the 
apparently  useless  furniture  of  Latin  and  Greek,* 
makes  one  of  the  most  burning  questions  of  practical 
pedagogics  in  Germany, 

Languages  in  their  totality  receive  less  attention 
in  the  real-gymnasia,  but  in  these  schools  modern 
languages  are  accorded  a  relatively  much  greater 
place  than  in  the  humanistic  institutions.  Foreign 
languages  occupy  from  ninety-two  weekly  hours  of  the 
entire  course  in  Prussia  to  one  hundred  and  two  and  a 
half  weekly  hours  in  Wiirtemberg  in  the  real-gymna- 
sia. The  gymnasia  in  the  same  states  give  one  hun- 
dred and  seventeen  and  one  hundred  and  thirty-nine 
hours  respectively  to  foreign  linguistic  training. 

French  is  usually  begun  in  the  real-gymnasia  in 
Quarta  or  LoAver  Tertia,  and  pursued  for  three  or 
four  hours  weekly  to  the  end  of  the  course.     This 

*  That  is,  when  obligatory  in  such  quantities  for  students 
of  all  professions.     Few  dispute  their  relative  value. 


204    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

gives  to  the  real -gymnasia  from  six  to  seven  hours 
more  of  French  than  the  gymnasia. 

In  the  real-schools,  which  have  no  foreign  lan- 
guages besides  English  and  French,  the  latter  is 
begun  in  Sexta,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  course, 
and  taken  throughout  the  six  years  of  the  course  for 
a  little  over  six  hours  weekly ;  the  total  amount  of 
time  given  to  French  and  English  being  about  the 
same  as  that  given  in  the  real-gymnasia.  The  various 
progymnasia  and  real-progymnasia  require  about  the 
same  amount  as  the  real-gymnasia. 

The  higher  real-schools,  however,  offer  the  same 
amount  as  the  real-schools  through  the  first  six  years, 
and  then  add  about  four  hours  weekly  (see  Prussian 
higher  real-school)  for  the  last  three  years  of  the 
course.  This  provides  a  total  of  forty-seven  hours' 
(Prussia)  French  instruction  in  the  entire  course. 
It  was  not  my  good  fortune  to  visit  a  higher  real- 
school,  as  they  are  not  yet  very  numerous,*  but  with 
this  amount  of  time  spent  upon  French  the  pupils 
ought  to  acquire  a  very  ready  acquaintance  with  the 
printed  language,  and  ought  to  speak  and  write  it 
fluently.  They  probably  do,  for  the  instruction  is 
excellent  in  most  schools,  and  the  pupils  seem  to 
acquire  the  language  readily. 

Many  of  the  schools  are  drawing  away  from  the 
older  methods  of  teaching  modern  languages.  Some 
still  cling  to  the  sahie  method  of  presentation  as  is 
pursued  with  the  classics,  but  they  are  the  exception 

*  They,  however,  seem  to  be  in  great  demand,  having  in- 
creased more  rapidly  during  the  last  few  years  than  any  other 
form  of  school.     See  table  on  distribution  of  schools. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  205 

rather  than  the  rule.  It  may  be  said  that  the  gymna- 
sium teachers  favour  the  grammatical  method,  while 
the  real-school  teachers  advocate  the  natural  method. 
The  results  obtained  in  English  in  the  gymnasia  are 
not  usually  so  good  as  those  reached  in  the  real-school 
and  real-gymnasia.  Still,  some  of  the  best  teaching 
of  English  that  I  was  able  to  witness  in  all  my  visits 
was  in  the  gymnasia.  French  is  taught  as  a  spoken 
language,  and  taught  well  in  all  classes  of  schools. 
The  real-schools  usually  give  instruction  of  the  most 
vigorous  sort,  which,  viewed  from  the  standpoint  of 
practical  utility,  is  most  effective.  This  utilitarian 
tendency  which  the  newer  methods  are  believed  to 
engender  and  foster  is  viewed  with  great  disfavour  by 
many  gymnasial  instructors.  They  believe  that  the 
philological  method  is  the  only  one  that  can  afford 
mental  discipline,  which  they  claim  is  the  main  and 
almost  the  sole  object  of  teaching  any  subject. 

The  real-school  men,  on  the  other  liand,  maintain 
that  no  mental  discipline  is  sacrificed  by  the  natural 
method.  They  believe  that  there  is  even  a  gain, 
since  the  interest  aroused  in  the  study  is  so  greatly 
increased.  The  practical  end,  which  they  do  not 
deny,  but  believe  is  the  chief  purpose  of  teaching 
the  modern  foreign  languages,  is  also  reached.  The 
real-school  courses  in  their  entirety  owe  their  exist- 
ence to  the  clamour  for  studies  of  practical  utilit}'', 
and  may  not  the  continuance  of  the  basal  studies  in 
their  courses  be  justified  by  the  necessity  for  training 
that  will  enable  the  classes  who  are  its  patrons  to 
best  meet  the  bread-and-butter  problems  of  life  ?  Who 
shall  say  that  the  practical  training  received  in  these 


206    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

schools  does  not  enable  their  students  to  live  more 
completely?  And  it  must  be  conceded  that  com- 
plete living  is  the  end  of  all  true  education.  It  must 
also  be  remembered  that  what  constitutes  complete 
living  for  one  does  not  constitute  complete  living  for 
all.  Some  live  most  completely  when  understanding 
and  mastering  the  practical — even  material — condi- 
tions of  life  only ;  others  live  completely  only  when 
in  the  contemplation  of  things  spiritual.  To  culti- 
vate pure  spirituality  only,  and  not  to  furnish  the 
means  for  securing  those  things  which  enable  people 
to  have  leisure  and  the  surroundings  necessary  for 
the  enjoyment  of  intellectual  occupation,  is  apt  to 
create  an  inharmonious  condition.  Individuals  so 
trained  are  apt  to  be  out  of  unison  with  their  envi- 
ronment. The  Germans  regard  these  as  a  class  of 
hunger  candidates,  unable  to  secure  the  means  for 
their  ideal  existence,  and  unwilling  and  unable  to 
turn  to  more  menial  service. 

The  teaching  of  modern  languages,  according  to 
the  natural  or  Pestalozzian  method,  is  receiving 
thorough  critical  discussion  in  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. All  the  pedagogical  magazines  are  replete  with 
able  discussions  jwo  and  con,  those  in  favour  of  the 
natural  method  being  decidedly  in  the  majority. 
There  are  also  several  journals  exclusively  devoted 
to  a  consideration  of  this  important  question.  Not 
only  are  the  newer  methods  finding  favour  in  discus- 
sions, but  many  disciples  are  putting  into  practice 
the  new  doctrines,  or,  more  strictly,  the  more  re- 
cently revised  doctrines.  The  natural  method  has  had 
many  exponents  among   the  great  leaders  of  peda- 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  207 

gogical  thouglit.  It  was  heralded  by  Erasmus,  Co- 
menius,  Pestalozzi,  Herbart,  Willmann,  Ackermann, 
Kern,  and  others,  not  to  mention  its  English  sup- 
porters. 

By  this  method  the  ear  as  well  as  the  eye  is  made 
a  factor  in  the  acquisition.  The  new  language  is 
to  be  acquired  by  the  same  method  that  a  child 
learns  its  mother  tongue — by  reception  through  the 
ear,  watching  the  movements  of  the  lips,  and  by  imi- 
tation of  what  it  perceives.  Through  constant  asso- 
ciation of  things  with  words  the  objective  and  the 
subjective  are  related.  Frequent  repetition  is  an 
important  factor,  and  the  influence  of  muscular 
memory  brought  about  by  movement  of  the  vocal 
organs  is  taken  advantage  of.  * 

By  the  proper  selection  of  material  the  interest  is 
stimulated.  This,  it  may  be  said,  is  perhaps  only 
second  to  repetition  in  the  influence  upon  memoriz- 
ing. Of  course,  the  youth  who  has  learned  to  read 
possesses  an  advantage  over  the  infant,  and  hence 
with  him  not  all  acquisition  depends  upon  "  parrot 
repetition  " ;  logical  associations  aid  the  youth.  The 
eye  is  also  a  factor  in  acquisition.  But  the  initial 
work  until  the  elements  of  pronunciation  are  well 
mastered  belong  to  the  oral  side  of  language  teaching. 

It  is  usual  to  begin  the  teaching  of  both  English 
and  French  in  German  schools  by  considerable  intro- 
ductory oral  work.  After  some  skill  has  been  acquired 
in  understanding  the  spoken  word  and  in  pronuncia- 

*  See  J.  R.  Street,  Ped.  Sein.  IV,  A  Study  in  Language 
Teaching ;  also  Dr.  H.  T.  Lukeus,  Ped.  Sem.  Ill,  A  Study  in 
learuintr  Lanauage. 


208    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

tion  (this  includes  sentences  as  well  as  words),  read- 
ing is  begun.  The  lessons  arc  first  read  by  the 
teacher,  who  explains  the  words  and  phrases  not 
understood  by  the  pupils ;  the  pupils  then  read  the 
selection  ;  and  after  tliis  follows  a  large  amount  of 
judicious  questioning  upon  what  has  been  read.  At 
first  the  questions  are  so  framed  that  the  pupil  may 
answer  in  the  words  given  in  the  book,  or  by  chang- 
ing a  single  word  or  at  most  a  very  few  words  of  the 
teacher's  question  ;  for  example  : 

Sind  sie  lang  in  London  geblieben  ?  Ja,  ich  bin 
lang  in  London  geblieben.  Who  went  with  you  to 
Eugby  ?  Henry  went  with  me  to  Rugby.  Did  you 
see  the  Queen's  palace  in  London  ?  Yes,  we  saw  the 
Queen's  palace  in  London. 

Concert  answering  in  the  first  stages  of  the  work 
is  recommended  as  an  aid  in  cultivating  the  ear  and 
the  voice.  "  Ausbildung  der  Hor-  und  Sprechftlhig- 
keit  des  Schlilers  ist  stets  im  Auge  zu  behalten " 
(Prussian  Lehrplan).  Much  stress  is  placed  upon 
the  teaching  of  words  and  phrases  used  in  daily  life  by 
the  people  whose  language  is  being  studied.  Pro- 
fessor Hauskneclit  claims  that  the  current  language 
of  the  people  should  be  learned  before  the  literary 
forms.  It  is  manifestly  a  lack,  he  maintains,  when 
(as  is  the  case  with  certain  elementary  books  on 
English)  pupils  are  not  given  in  the  course  of  an 
entire  year  the  expression  for  letter,  post,  railway 
train,  steamer,  tailor,  coffee,  or  supper ;  further,  the 
characteristic  English  expressions,  roast  beef,  beef- 
steak, plum  pudding,  ham,  eggs,  ale,  ginger-beer, 
tramway,    waterproof,   trade,    industry,   commerce, 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  209 

yes,  also,  daughter,  mother,  aunt,  girl,  and  even 
pretty.  And  the  pupil  has  been  obliged  to  memo- 
rize the  words  fossil  igumiodon  ! 

The  more  recent  books  and  the  official  regulations 
state  that  pupils  are  to  be  made  acquainted  with  the 
daily  life  and  occurrences  of  the  people  whose  lan- 
guage they  are  studying.  AVhen  studying  English, 
they  are  carried  in  thought,  aided  by  maps,  pictures, 
and  proper  reading  books,  we  will  say,  to  the  capital 
of  England,  and  made  acquainted  with  its  location, 
its  streets,  its  points  of  interest,  such  as  the  Houses 
of  Parliament,  Westminster  Abbey,  Kensington  Gar- 
dens, Hyde  Park,  Eotten  Eow,  Trafalgar  Square, 
the  British  Museum,  the  Bank  of  England,  the 
Tower,  Big  Ben,  etc.  I  have  witnessed  very  in- 
teresting lessons  based  upon  Tom's  Journey  through 
London  and  its  Environs.  (See  Hausknecht's  English 
Student.)  The  boys  were  introduced  to  all  the  fa- 
mous sights,  learned  something  about  the  Charter- 
house School  and  Eugby,  about  the  English  school- 
boy's games,  and  life  in  England  generally.  The 
schoolboy  life  is,  of  course,  of  greatest  interest,  being 
so  nearly  related  to  their  own  experiences.  Had  the 
language  been  French,  Paris  or  some  other  French 
city  would  have  formed  the  centre  of  the  theme,  and 
French  schoolboy  life  would  have  received  attention. 
I  have  witnessed  very  spirited  exercises  upon  a  study 
of  French  schools. 

Many  of  the  German  modern -language  teachers 
speak  with  a  good  deal  of  pride  of  the  fact  that  their 
books  on  French  contain  very  few  classical  tales  and 
fables.     The  French  reading  books  on  German  are 


210    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

almost  exclusively  made  up  of  classic  material.  Such 
selections  tend  to  deaden  all  interest.  Greek  tales,  if 
in  any  foreign  language,  should  be  studied  in  Greek, 
Latin  tales  in  Latin,  and  fables  in  the  mother  tongue. 
Some  of  our  American  text-book  writers  could  well 
profit  by  this  suggestion  when  preparing  foreign-lan- 
guage manuals.  Interest  is  fundamental  in  the  ac- 
quisition of  any  subject,  and  I  believe,  from  the  work 
I  saw,  that  the  Germans  have  struck  one  of  the  right 
keys  toward  securing  it  in  language  teaching. 

Along  with  this  the  geography  of  the  country  is 
correlated,  names  are  learned  as  they  are  pronounced 
at  home,  much  valuable  information  is  added,  and 
with  no  loss — on  the  contrary,  with  gain — to  the  lan- 
guage lesson.  Important  events  of  history  are  dis- 
cussed. The  authors  who  have  contributed  most  to 
the  literature  are  considered  biographically,  and  some 
of  their  most  important  productions  are  at  least 
talked  about  if  time  does  not  permit  a  more  detailed 
consideration.  In  the  higher  real-schools  quite  a 
thorough  and  detailed  survey  of  English  literature  is 
attempted,  but  in  the  gymnasia,  where  it  is  taken  for 
such  a  limited  time,  the  elements  only  can  be  studied. 
Simultaneously  with  learning  vocabularies  (which  in 
the  early  portion  of  the  work  are  learned  from  the 
teacher)  and  becoming  acquainted  with  the  life  of 
the  people,  rules  of  grammar  are  considered.  But 
they  are  of  minor  importance,  and  are  incidental 
instead  of  being  the  "  Hauptsache,  " 

The  above  necessarily  brief  discussion  will  give 
something  of  the  aims  and  methods  in  teaching  mod- 
ern languages.     The  theories  advanced  by  their  most 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  211 

progressive  teachers  are  founded  on  a  sound  peda- 
gogical and  psychological  basis.  Some  schools  secure 
most  creditable  results,  others  less  perfect.  From 
all  the  schools  the  boys  come  with  a  good  working 
knowledge  of  French — i.  e.,  they  can  read  it,  speak 
it,  and  write  it  with  considerable  ease  and  fluency. 
From  many  schools  the  same  may  be  said  of  English, 
but  it  is  far  from  universal.  Few  of  the  university  stu- 
dents have  a  good  working  knoAvledge,  and  scarcely 
any  can  speak  it.  This  is  due  to  two  causes  :  First, 
most  of  the  university  students  are  gymnasial  trained, 
and  there  little  attention  is  paid  to  it,  some  never 
studying  it ;  second,  few  teachers  can  speak  it  correct- 
ly, hence  the  poor  pronvmciation  of  the  students. 
While  they  teach  French  pronunciation  perfectly,  in 
general  the  English  pronunciation  is  wretched.  It  is 
very  exceptional  to  find  native  English  teachers  in 
the  schools,  and  few  of  the  German  teachers  ever 
master  the  difficulties  of  English  pronunciation. 
Occasionally  a  teacher  sjaends  a  short  time  in  Eng- 
land, but  it  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule. 
Hence,  although  the  real-gymnasia  and  higher  real- 
school  graduates  can  read  and  write  the  language 
well,  they  can  seldom  speak  it  so  that  an  Englishman 
or  an  American  can  understand  without  difficulty. 
I  have  listened  to  a  class  of  Upper  Prima  boys  read 
from  Herrig's  Classical  Authors  and  was  unable  to 
understand  a  line  without  also  looking  on  the  book. 
They  had  studied  the  language  over  five  years.  On 
the  whole,  I  believe  their  methods  and  results  in 
modern  languages  are  very  commendable,  and  should 
they  secure  English-speaking  teachers,  their  proce- 


212    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

dure  in  English  in  the  real-gymnasia  and  liigher  real- 
schools  would  be  as  admirable  as  it  now  is  in  teach- 
ing French. 

Appendix  to  Section  C. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  works  compiled  by  the 
School  Board  in  Coblenz,*  from  which  teachers  are 
to  make  selections  in  teaching  English  : 

Historical: 

Chambers,  History  of  the  English  People U.  III. 

Scott,  Tales  of  a  Grandfather U.  HI,  L.  II. 

Macaulay,  Lord  Clive II. 

Irving,  The  Discovery  of  America 11. 

Macaulay,  Warren  Hastings U.  II,  L.  I. 

The  Duke  of  Monmouth U.  II,  L.  I. 

"  History  of  England I. 

Green,  A  Short  History  of  the  English  People.  I. 

McCarthy,  The  Crimean  War U.  II,  I. 

Biographical  : 

Franklin's  Autobiography II. 

Smiles,  Deeds  of  Heroism L.  11. 

"        George  Stephenson II. 

Irving,  Sketch-Book U.  II,  L 

Goadby,  The  England  of  Shakespeare I. 

Narrative  : 

Irving,  Tales  of  the  Alhambra U.  Ill,  L.  II. 

Marryat,  Masterman  Ready U.  Ill,  L.  II. 

"       The  Children  of  the  New  Forest U.  Ill,  L.  II. 

"      The  Settlers  in  Canada U.  HI,  L.  II. 

"      The  Three  Cutters U.  Ill,  L.  II. 

"       Collection  of  Tales  and  Sketches II. 

Scott,  Waverly,  Kenilworth,  Ivanhoe U.  II. 

Dickens,  Sketches U.  II. 

"       A  Christmas  Carol U.  II,  I. 

"       The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth 

*  Centralblatt,  1897,  pp.  225-227. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  213 

Orations  : 

Parliamentary  Speeches  of  Pitt,  Burke,  etc. 
Science  and  History  of  Civilization: 

Great  Explorers  and  Inventors U.  II. 

Besant,  London,  Past  and  Present U.  II,  I. 

Green,  Short  History  of  the  English  People. . .   U.  II,  I. 

Escott,  England  and  its  People U.  II,  I. 

Polity  and  Pursuits 

London  and  its  Environs U.  II,  I. 

Poetry  : 

Julius    Caesar,   Coriolanus,    Macbeth,   Richard 
III,  Merchant  of  Venice I. 

Scott's  Lady  of  the  Lake U.  IT,  I. 

Byron's  Selections  from  Childe  Harold I. 

Milton,  Selections  from  Paradise  Lost I. 

Collection  from  Groff  and  Ilausknecht U.  Ill,  I. 

Seleci ions  for  Frtnch. 
Historical  : 

Lame-Fleury,  Decouverte  de  TAmerique U.  III. 

Michaud,  Premiere  Croisade U.  III. 

*'  Troisieme  Croisade U.  Ill,  L.  II. 

Barante,  Ilistoire  de  Jeanne  d'Arc U.  Ill,  L.  II. 

Thiers,  Bonaparte  en  Egypte  et  en  Syrie L.  II. 

Drury,  Sieele  de  Louis  XIV L.  II. 

Segur,  Histoire  de  Napoleon  et  de  la  Grande 

Armee U.  II. 

Miquet,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution U.  II,  I. 

Lamprey,  Histoire  de  Napoleon I. 

Taine,  Les  Origines  de  la  France  contempo- 

raine I. 

Biooraphical  : 

Miquet,  Vie  de  Franklin II. 

Michaud,  Vie  et  Coutumes  des  Croisades II. 

Halevy,  L'ln vasion II. 

Larcey,  Le  Siege  de  Paris L^.  II,  I. 

D'Herisson,    Journal    d'un     Oilieier    d'Ordon- 

nance U.  II. 


214    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

BlOGRAIMIICAL  : 

Montes(iuieu,  Consiclorations  sur  les  Causes,  etc.  U.  TI,  I. 

Taine,  Napoleon I. 

Guizot,  Etude  sur  Washinj^ton I. 

"        Histoire  de  la  Civilisation I. 

Orations  : 

Deseze,  Defence  de  Ludwig  XVI I. 

Narratives  : 

Bruno,  Le  Tour  de  la  France  en  5  Mois U.  III. 

"        Francinet U.  III. 

Souvestre,  Au  Coin  de  Feu U.  Ill,  L.  II. 

Erckmann-Chatrian,  Histoire  d'un  Conscrit. . .  U.  Ill,  L.  II. 
"  "  Waterloo,   Contes    Popu- 

laires,  Contes  du  Bord  du  Rhin L.II. 

Conteurs  Moderne L.  II. 

Choix  de  Nouvelles  Moderne II. 

Daudet,  Lettres  de  Mon  Moulin U.  II. 

Contes  du  Lundl U.  II. 

Coppee,  Nouvellan U.  II. 

Merimee,  Colomba U.  II. 

Toepier,  Nouvelles  Genevoises U.  II.       * 

Natural  Science,  Geography,  Technical  : 

Voyageurs  et  Inventeurs  celebres L.  II. 

Figuier,  Les  Grandes  Inventions  raodernes. ...  L.  I. 

M.  du  Camp,  Paris I. 

Drama : 

Girardin,  La  Joie  fait  Peur L.  II. 

Scribe,  Bertrand  et  Raton,  Le  Verre  d'Eau..  . .   II. 

Bataille  des  Dames U.  II.  I. 

Sandeau,  Mile,  de  la  Seigliere U.  II. 

Feuillet,  Le  Village U.  II. 

Augier  et  Sandeau,  Le  Gendre  de  M.  Poisier. .   U.  II.  I. 

Racine,  Athalie,  Britannicus U.  II. 

Corneille,  Lc  Cid,  Horace,  Cinna U.  II.  I.   , 

Moliere,  Le  Bourgeois  Gentilhomme U.  II. 

"        L'Avare U.  II,  I. 

"        Les  Femine  Savantes I. 

"        Le  Misanthrope U.  II. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  215 

On  the  four  following  pages  is  given  the  table  of 
contents  of  one  of  the  modern  German  books  *  for 
teaching  English.  It  illustrates  very  well  the  meth- 
ods which  I  have  seen  tried  in  some  of  the  best 
schools.  It  seems  to  me  to  contain  much  worthy  of 
imitation  in  teaching  foreign  languages  in  our  own 
schools ;  hence  I  give  it  without  change. 

D.   MATHEMATICS. 

1st  class,  Vorschide.  Arithmetic,  5  hours.  Exer- 
cises in  the  four  fundamental  operations  with  num- 
bers to  one  hundred.  Division  with  one-place  divi- 
sors. Multiplication  table.  Exercises  from  the 
Rechenfihel  (primer  of  arithmetic)  with  numbers 
from  one  to  one  hundred. 

2d  class,  Vorschule.  Arithmetic,  5  hours.  Kopf- 
recltnen  (mental  arithmetic)  with  numbers  from  one 
to  one  thousand.  Written  exercises.  Fundamental 
operations  with  numbers  to  one  million. 

3d  class,  Vorschule.  Arithmetic,  5  hours.  Men- 
tal and  written  exercises  with  numbers  of  any  size 
(  Unbegretizten  Zahlraum)  with  concrete  and  abstract 
numbers.     Coins,  measures,  and  weights. 

Sexta  {Gymnasium).  Arithmetic,  4 hours.  Eepe- 
tition  of  fundamental  operations  with  whole  num- 
bers, concrete  and  abstract.  Eeduction  of  integral 
numbers  (simple  examples).  German  measures, 
weights,  coins.  Exercises  in  decimal  notation  and 
calculation. 

*  Oberstufe  zum  Lehrbuch  der  englisclien  Sprache  vom  Dr. 
Oskar  Thiergen,  of  Dresden.  Publislied  by  15.  G.  Teubner, 
Leipzig,  1897. 


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220    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Quinta.  Arithmetic,  4  hours.  Divisibility  of 
numbers.  Common  fractions.  Simple  equations, 
Avith  numerical  expressions  on  one  side.  Simple 
exercises  in  proportion.  German  weights,  measures, 
and  coins. 

Quarta.  Mathematics,  4  hours  (aritlimetic  2 
hours).  Decimals,  simple  and  compound  2:)roportion, 
with  integral  numbers  and  fractions  (exercises  from 
"biirgerliche "  life).  Eeview  of  fractions  and  nu- 
merical computation  of  literal  expressions.  Planime- 
try 2  hours.  Straight  lines,  angles,  triangles.  Fun- 
damental constructions. 

Loiver  Tertia.  Mathematics,  3  hours.  First  se- 
mester, arithmetic  2  hours,  planimetry  one  hour. 
Second  semester,  the  reverse.  In  arithmetic  the 
fundamental  principles  in  calculation  of  absolute  lit- 
eral expressions.  Equations  of  the  first  degree  with 
one  unknown  quantity.  Planimetry  :  Parallelograms, 
circles  (first  part),  construction  of  triangles,  and 
tangents. 

Upper  Tertia.  Mathematics,  3  hours.  First  se- 
mester, arithmetic  2  hours,  planimetry  1  hour.  Sec- 
ond semester,  reverse  the  number  of  hours.  Arith- 
metic :  Equations  of  the  first  degree  with  one  and 
with  several  unknown  quantities.  Exercises  in  frac- 
tions. Powers  and  roots,  considering  only  positive  in- 
tegral exponents.  Planimetry  :  Circle  (second  part), 
equality  of  surfaces,  calculation  of  rectilinear  sur- 
faces. Introduction  to  similarity  of  figures.  Con- 
struction of  triangles,  having  given  the  sum  and  dif- 
ference of  two  sides  and  of  the  opposite  angles. 

Louder  Secimda.     Mathematics,  4  hours.     First  se- 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  221 

mester  arithmetic,  second  semester  planimetry. 
Simple  and  quadratic  equations  with  one  unknown 
quantity.  Application  of  these  in  triangulation. 
Definition  of  power  and  roots.  Xegative  and  frac- 
tional exponents.  Logarithms  and  ajiplication  with 
five-place  logarithmic  tables.  Calculation  of  surfaces 
and  circumferences  of  circles.  Definition  of  trigo- 
nometric functions.  Trigonometric  calculation  of 
right-angled  and  equiangular  triangles.  Calculation 
of  sides,  surfaces,  and  volumes  of  regular  polyhe- 
drons. 

Upjjcr  Secunda,  4  hours.  Trigonometric  con- 
struction of  triangles.  Powers,  roots,  logarithms. 
Equations,  including  quadratics  with  several  un- 
known quantities.  Arithmetical  and  geometrical 
series  of  the  first  order.  Similarity  of  figures,  geo- 
metric means,  and  a  little  concerning  harmonic 
points  and  rays.  Continuation  of  algebraic  geom- 
etry. 

Lower  Prima,  4  hours.  Eeview  arithmetical 
principles  of  former  classes.  Interest,  rent,  imagi- 
naries,  binomial  theorem  for  positive  integral  expo- 
nents. Stereometry.  Maxima  and  minima,  cubic 
equations. 

Upper  Prima,  4  hours.  Eeview  arithmetic  of 
previous  years.  Interest,  rent,  imaginary  numbers, 
binomial  theorem  with  positive  integral  exponents. 
Completion  of  trigonometry  (addition  theorems). 
Constructions  and  determinations.  Application  of 
trigonometrical  principles  to  spherical  triangles. 

The  mathematical  curricula  in  all  the  German 
secondary  schools  offer  many  points  of  suggestive- 


222    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

ness  for  American  schools.  The  entire  course  occu- 
pies a  little  less  time  than  is  usually  devoted  to 
mathematics  in  American  schools.  Beginning  with 
the  first  year  in  the  Vorschulen,  four  hours  a  week 
is  the  average  amount  of  time  devoted  to  the  subject. 
From  Sexta  to  Ujiper  Prima  in  the  gymnasia,  from 
thirty-three  to  thirty-six  (usually  thirty-three)  weekly 
hours  of  instruction  are  given  to  mathematical  sub- 
jects of  various  kinds.  We  may  regard  four  hours 
weekly  throughout  the  entire  course  as  about  the 
average  amount  of  time. 

In  American  schools  about  five  hours  a  week  are 
given  through  each  of  the  eight  grades  of  the  gram- 
mar-school course,  or  about  forty  weekly  hours  of  in- 
struction plus  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  years  of 
five  hours  a  week  in  the  high  school,  making  a  total 
of  from  fifty  to  fifty-two  and  a  half  weekly  hours 
before  leaving  the  high  school.  If  we  add  at  least 
one  year  of  five  hours  weekly  in  college  to  carry  the 
pupil  to  the  same  point  of  proficiency,  the  difference 
in  the  amount  of  time  becomes  very  great.  This 
shows  a  considerable  excess  in  the  amount  of  time 
occupied  by  the  American  boy  to  the  end  of  the 
high-school  course — in  acquiring  what  ?  An  amount 
of  mathematical  knowledge  and  skill  equal  to  that 
possessed  by  the  gymnasial  graduate  ?  As  can  be 
seen  from  an  examination  of  the  German  school  pro- 
grammes, the  American  boy  at  the  end  of  the  high- 
school  course  has  acquired  less  knowledge  of  math- 
ematics than  his  German  cousin  at  the  end  of  the 
gymnasial  course.  To  be  sure,  as  was  demonstrated 
in  the  chapter  on  Ages  of  Graduates,  the  German 


PRESENT  COURSES   OP   STUDY.  223 

boy  is  about  two  years  older,  but  we  must  regard  as 
of  considerable  moment  the  less  amount  of  time  he 
has  spent  in  acquiring  this  knowledge,  and  the  extra 
amount  of  time  he  has  left  for  other  branches. 

The  gymnasial  graduate  has  about  the  same 
mathematical  acquirements  as  the  average  college 
student  at  the  end  of  his  freshman  year.  Those 
who  have  taken  the  real-gymnasium  or  the  higher 
real-school  course  have  accomplished  work  nearly 
equivalent  to  that  finished  the  end  of  the  sopho- 
more year  in  college. 

The  real-school  courses  of  six  years'  duration 
cover  as  much  ground  in  mathematics  as  our  high 
schools ;  that  is,  pupils  may  have  acquired  in  Ger- 
man schools  as  much  mathematics  at  the  end  of  the 
ninth  year  of  school  life  (if  they  finish  at  a  normal 
age)  as  our  pupils  at  the  end  of  the  twelfth  year  of 
school.  If  we  again  compare  the  work  in  the  Ger- 
man gymnasia  (humanistic  and  real)  with  the  entire 
mathematical  course  through  the  sophomore  year,  we 
find  that  the  American  boy  has  spent  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  weekly  hours  more  than  the  gymnasial  grad- 
uate. This  means  an  equivalent  of  from  three  to 
four  years  of  five  hours  weekly.  Surely  a  difference 
worth  investigating ! 

The  causes  of  this  discrepancy  may  be  summed 
up,  perhaps,  under  the  following  heads  : 

'   (a)  The  German  schools  have  better  instruction 
by  more  thoroughly  trained  teachers. 

(b)  There  is  a  better  co-ordination  and  division  of 
work. 

(c)  The  work  is  continued  to  the  end  of  the  gym- 


224:    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

nasial  course,  and  only  about  four  hours  are  given 
weekly,  instead  of  five  hours  to  the  end  of  the  sec- 
ond year  of  the  high  school,  and  then  a  cessation. 

(d)  In  the  German  schools  the  metric  system  is 
used,  instead  of  our  awkward  system  of  weights  and 
measures. 

(e)  The  Germans  omit  all  unnecessary  details, 
especially  in  arithmetic  and  demonstrative  geometry. 
Only  such  propositions  are  dwelt  upon  as  will  be  in 
constant  use  throughout  the  course. 

(/)  The  Germans  omit  all  unnecessary  or  un- 
practical parts  of  arithmetic.  Only  those  parts  are 
taken  that  are  of  actual  use  in  business  life  or  are 
necessary  preliminaries  for  the  subsequent  mathe- 
matical work.  The  business  arithmetic  is  confined 
to  elementary  principles.  Such  topics  as  banking, 
bank  discount,  partial  payments,  alligation,  partner- 
ship, and  others  that  are  required  in  our  elementary 
schools,  do  not  appear  in  their  programmes  and  re- 
ceive little  treatment  in  their  text-books  on  arithme- 
tic. In  Quarta  (the  sixth  year  of  school  life)  the 
work  begins  to  diverge  from  the  ordinary  numerical 
arithmetic,  and  a  more  strictly  mathematical  treat- 
ment is  begun  by  introducing  literal  arithmetic. 
Xot  all  the  hard  problems  have  been  solved,  nor  all 
possible  arithmetical  rules  and  combinations  mas- 
tered ;  but  the  boy  is  led  by  gradual  steps  to  a  more 
purely  mathematical  consideration  of  number  and 
quantity.  He  is  also  helped  to  acquire  principles 
which  will  enable  him  to  conquer  some  of  the  diffi- 
culties that  he  has  previously  encountered,  but  which 
he  has  escaped  by  going  around.     A  maxim  nowhere 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  225 

more  true  than  in  mathematics  is,  that  "  often  the 
best  way  to  conquer  a  difficulty  is  by  going  around 
it."  Single-handed  the  boy  must  frequently  floun- 
der around  unnecessarily,  probably  overmastered  by 
the  formidable  and  useless  arithmetical  puzzles  that 
appear  in  many  American  text-books  on  arithmetic. 

{g)  The  manner  of  dividing  the  work  is  such 
that  pupils  may  take  up  topics  and  subjects  in  the 
order  of  their  difficulty.  Xot  all  of  one  subject,  in- 
cluding all  the  side  issues,  are  attempted  before  tak- 
ing up  a  new  subject.  Simple  equations  are  easier 
than  partial  payments  and  it  would  certainly  appear 
psychological  to  begin  them  in  their  order  of  diffi- 
culty. It  is  an  almost  trite  pedagogical  maxim,  that 
the  presentation  of  a  subject  should  always  bo 
adapted  to  the  capabilities  of  the  taught ;  and  also 
that  we  should  proceed  from  the  simple  to  that 
which  is  more  complex.  One  logical  order  that 
might  be  followed,  and  that  one  we  have  been  fol- 
lowing, consists  in  attempting  to  finish  the  entire 
subject  before  beginning  a  new  one.  This  in  the 
case  of  mathematics  violates  the  psychological  order, 
which  is  more  important.  It  is  also  certainly  as 
logical  to  arrange  topics  in  their  order  of  difficulty 
if  one  will  directly  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
other ;  and  there  can  be  no  question  but  that  some 
parts  of  algebra  and  geometry  are  necessary  pre- 
liminaries of  certain  arithmetical  operations.  A 
knowledge  of  the  equation  is  almost  indispensable 
in  many  parts  of  arithmetic. 

Much  oral  work  is  required  in  all  grades  and  in 
all    mathematical    subjects.     There   are    no  black- 


226    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

boards  large  enough  to  admit  of  having  an  entire 
class  work  at  the  board.  I  never  saw  a  blackboard 
in  Germany  larger  than  four  feet  by  eight  feet.  The 
teacher  uses  the  board  for  demonstrational  and  illus- 
trative purposes,  and  the  pupils  are  obliged  to  follow 
the  work  mentally.  Thus  all  crutches  are  taken 
away,  and  the  results  are  certainly  excellent.  I 
have  never  witnessed  mathematical  exercises  where 
pupils  exhibited  more  mental  alertness.  In  our 
American  schools  the  too  abundant  use  of  the  black- 
board is  unquestionably  conducive  to  weakness  in 
mathematical  computations.  When  too  much  writ- 
ten work  is  permitted,  the  pupil  fails  through  lack  of 
training  to  grasp  and  to  hold  clearly  and  firmly  in 
mind  the  proper  mathematical  relations.  Students 
often  enter  the  universities  without  any  power  what- 
ever of  following  a  lecture  or  a  connected  discourse, 
and  this  habit  of  leaning  on  visual  helps  in  mathe- 
matics is  one  of  the  causes  to  which  the  defect  may 
be  attributed. 

As  a  sj)ecimen  of  the  facility  with  which  examples 
may  be  worked  mentally  by  young  pupils,  I  append 
a  number  of  examples  that  were  given  to  boys  in  the 
fourth  year  of  school.*  The  class  were  very  ordinary 
boys  in  appearance,  but  as  they,  some  sixty  in  num- 
ber, sat  in  soldierly  order  upon  those  low,  backless 
recitation  benches  for  an  entire  hour  (from  3  to  4 
p.  M.)  and  vanquished  problem  after  problem  which 
the  teacher  hurled  at  them,  with  scarcely  an  error, 
it  excited  my  admiration  for  their  masterly  accom- 

*  From  III  Ilohcre  Burger  Schulc,  Leipzig. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  227 

plishments.  At  the  same  time  I  pitied  their  poor 
backs  and  aching  muscles,  and  I  could  not  repress 
a  smile  as  an  occasional  one,  longing  for  physical 
motion,  pricked  his  neighbour  with  a  jjin  or  punched 
him  in  the  ribs ;  this,  of  course,  when  the  teacher 
was  not  looking.  The  lesson  ivas  upon  denominate 
numbers,  and  was  evidently  a  review  lesson,  I  omit 
preliminaries,  and  give  only  some  of  the  examples : 

How  many  mm.  in  1  cm.  ?  cm,  in  1  m.  ?  mm.  in  1 
m,  ?  m.  in  1  km.  ?  How  many  sec.  in  25  min.  ?  35 
min,  ?  75  min,  ?  1  hour  equals  how  many  min.  ?  2 
hrs.  ?  24  hrs,  ?  59  hrs.  ?  How  many  hours  in  1  day  ? 
5  days?  9  days?  60  days?  85  days?  66  days?  90 
days  ?  99  days  ?  in  month  of  February  ?  months  in 
9  years  ?  80  years  ?  70  years  ?  700  years  ?  Exact  date 
of  Luther's  birth  ?  death  ?  How  many  years, 
months,  days  old  waa  he  ?  Same  for  Goethe.  How 
many  years  old  is  your  father  ?  months  ?  How  many 
days  in  2  years?  10  X  10  equals?  100  X  10  equals? 
1,000  X  10  equals  ?  so  on  up  to  1,000,000,000.  How 
many  hours  (approximately)  in  1,000,000,000  seconds? 

A  great  advance  has  been  made  in  Germany 
within  the  last  few  years  in  the  methods  of  teaching 
mathematics.  Undoubtedly  the  methods  there  have 
not  been  very  poor  for  a  long  time,  for  with  so  many 
competent  teachers  who  have  been  able,  because  of 
their  broad  scholarship,  to  see  the  entire  course  in 
its  proper  relations  the  methods  could  not  possibly 
be  inferior.  The  chief  advance,  according  to  Dr. 
Eethwisch,*   has  been   in  the   introduction  of   the 

*  Deutschlands  hoheres  Schulwesen  iin  19.  Jahrhundert, 


228    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

heuristic  method.  The  old  Euclidian  method  has 
been  almost  entirely  abandoned.  Instead  of  follow- 
ing a  written  course  of  reasoning  and  then  memorizing 
it,  pupils  are  taught  to  discuss  relations  for  them- 
selves, and  from  known  discovered  conditions  to 
draw  conclusions.  One  of  the  best  geometry  lessons 
I  ever  witnessed  was  in  a  class  of  boys  about  twelve 
years  old.  The  lesson  was  upon  similarity  of  triangles. 
Five  or  six  cases  of  similarity  of  triangles  were  dis- 
posed of  during  the  hour — more  than  are  usually 
taken  by  the  old  method  of  memorizing  the  author's 
reasoning.  The  pupils  were  led  to  discover  all 
relations,  to  formulate  the  theorems,  and  from  the 
known  conditions  given  the  conclusions  were  drawn 
and  the  course  of  reasoning  carried  out  by  the  pupils 
themselves.  The  teacher  guided  the  discussion,  but 
the  pupils  formulated  it.  The  method  may  perhaps 
be  called  the  heuristic-analytic  method. 

To  quote  Eethwisch  again,  "  In  der  Ausbildung 
der  genetischen  systeme  beim  analytischen  Beweis- 
fuhrung  und  heuristischen  Lehrverfahren  gipfelt  der 
Fortschritt  des  mathematischen  Unterrichts." 

The  following  paragraphs  are  inserted  as  a  fair 
sample  of  the  division  of  work  as  carried  on  in  most 
of  the  secondary  schools  I  have  visited.  It  is  com- 
piled from  the  table  of  contents  of  a  much-used  work 
in  mathematics  designed  for  higher  grades  in  sec- 
ondary schools.* 

Pla7iimet7'y. — Under  this   are    included    angles, 

*F.  0.  Mehler,  Ilauptsiltze  der  Elementar-Mathematik  zum 
Gebrauch  an  Gymnasien  und  Kealgymnasien ;  seventeenth 
edition,  1893. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  229 

parallel  lines,  rectilinear  figures,  equality  of  rectan- 
gular figures,  circles,  similarity  of  figures,  comparison 
and  measurements  of  rectilinear  surfaces  and  regu- 
lar polygons,  measurement  of  the  circle,  algebraic 
geometry. 

Algebra. — Four  fundamental  operations,  powers 
and  roots,  imaginaries,  expressions  of  the  form 
V«  ±  V^  ^"^^  '^^'  ±  ^^-i  proportion,  equations,  con- 
tinued fractions,  logarithms,  interest  and  rent  (by 
logarithms).  Trigonometry :  trigonometric  func- 
tions, solution  of  plane  triangles.  Series  and  binomial 
theorem  :  geometric  series,  arithmetical  series,  appli- 
cation of  these  in  the  elementary  notions  of  simple 
transcendental  functions.  Binomial  theorem  and 
applications. 

Stereoinetri/. — Straight  lines  and  planes  in  space, 
solid  angles,  polyhedrons,  cylinder,  cone,  sphere. 
Spherical  trigonometry.     Trigonometric  tables. 

Throughout  the  entire  course  the  number  of 
formula  to  be  memorized  is  reduced  to  the  mini- 
mum, but  these  few  are  constantly  put  into  practice. 
The  fundamental  principles  of  planimetry  are  first 
met  with  in  Quarta,  and  are  constantly  used  through- 
out the  remaining  six  years  of  the  course.  Trigono- 
metric functions  are  first  defined  in  Lower  Secunda, 
a  year  before  our  p^^pils  leave  the  high  school,  and 
the  knowledge  of  these  is  made  necessary  almost 
daily  for  the  next  four  years.  The  same  is  true  of 
algebraic  equations.  Their  solution  is  learned  early 
in  the  course,  and  their  application  is  constantl}^  de- 
manded throughout  the  whole  realm  of  mathematics. 
Trigonometric  formulge  are  reduced  to  the  minimum, 


230    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

but  by  endless  repetition  they  become  indeliljly  fixed 
in  the  memory. 

The  method  of  procedure,  it  will  be  noticed,  is 
diametrically  opposite  to  the  methods  in  our  own 
schools.  Examine  the  courses  of  study  in  a  thou- 
sand American  high  schools  (and  those  courses  are 
followed  quite  strictly),  and  it  will  be  found  that 
arithmetic  seldom  appears,  it  supposedly  having 
been  finished  in  the  grammar  school ;  algebra  is 
found  to  be  a  first-  or  second-year  study,  geometry  fol- 
lows after  it  (as  an  isolated  study),  and  trigonometry, 
which  will  not  be  found  in  ten  per  cent  of  the  courses, 
follows  along  after  geometry.  Is  there  any  psycho- 
logical reason  why  they  should  follow  this  order  ? 
I  am  firmly  convinced  that  one  of  tlie  weakest  spots 
in  American  school  administration  is  this  unnatural, 
unj)sychological,  arbitrary  division  of  subjects  into 
isolated  units. 

Psychologists  will  agree  that  repetition  and  asso- 
ciation are  among  the  most,  if  not  the  most,  potent 
factors  in  memory.  The  more  ways  in  which  a  prin- 
ciple is  applied  the  more  association  tracts  it  forms, 
and  hence  the  more  firmly  fixed  in  memory.  By  the 
German  plan  of  studies  all  principles  learned  are 
kept  before  the  mind  through  long  periods.  In 
American  schools  the  reverse  is  true.  Studies  are 
pursued  for  a  short  period  and  then  dismissed  entire- 
ly. It  is  no  wonder  that  when  pupils  appear  for  ex- 
amination for  entrance  to  college  they  know  so  little 
about  algebra  and  other  secondary-school  studies. 

This  "  spiral  "  arrangement  of  subjects  is  worthy 
of  special  commendation.     By  this  I  mean  that  the 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  231 

student  is  led  to  cross  and  recross  the  same  ground 
many  times,  each  time  with  a  different  purpose.  At 
one  time  a  topic  may  be  studied  with  an  entirely 
practical  end  in  view — for  example,  that  of  acquir- 
ing a  mechanical  mastery  of  the  operations  involved 
in  reaching  results  ;  at  another  time  it  may  be  con- 
sidered for  the  purpose  of  vinderstanding  the  scien- 
tific principles  involved.  By  this  spiral  plan  the 
student  is  also  enabled  to  secure  a  deeper  insight 
into  the  topic,each  time  he  recurs  to  it.  He  is  also 
obliged  to  continually  apply  all  the  important  princi- 
ples gained.     They  thus  become  firmly  fixed  in  mind. 

Of  perhaps  more  importance  than  any  of  these 
advantages  is  the  permanent  interest  that  the  stu- 
dent gains  from  the  long-continued  pursuance  of 
the  study.  By  constantly  keeping  the  subject  be- 
fore the  mind  and  continually  applying  it  in  mani- 
fold relations  it  becomes  an  integral  part  of  the  uni- 
fied possession  of  the  mind  rather  than  a  mass  of 
undigested  facts  soon  to  be  forgotten,  which  is  the 
inevitable  result  of  the  usual  arrangement  of  Ameri- 
can high-school  programmes. 

In  Germany  a  great  deal  of  importance  is  at- 
tached to  drawing  in  connection  with  mathematics. 
The  teachers  say  they  wish  to  make  the  instruction 
anscliaulicli.  Constructions  are  made  whenever  pos- 
sible. All  tables  of  measurements  are  learned  in- 
ductively and  objectively.  In  all  schools  will  be 
found  model  sets  of  weights  and  measures.  Often  I 
have  seen  scales  of  measurements  printed  on  the  wall 
in  constant  view.  Dividers,  rulers,  T-squares,  try- 
squares,  etc.,  are  always  at  hand. 


232  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Great  stress  is  laid  upon  securing  a  connected 
view  of  ^he  different  processes  involved.  For  exam- 
jjle,  it  is.  shown  that  multiplication  is  an  addition  of 
equals,  subtraction  and  division  are  the  reverse  of 
the  direct  processes,  powers  are  multiples  of  equal 
factors,  roots  and  logarithms  are  inversions  of  direct 
processes  of  involution.  Then  the  negative,  partial, 
irrational,  imaginary,  and  transcendental  systems 
lose  their  arbitrary  appearance.* 

An  attemjit  is  made  to  correlate  mathematics 
with  other  branches,  and  with  considerable  success. 
Examples  and  problems  are  drawn  as  far  as  possible 
from  hurgcrliclie  life,  from  practical  measurements 
necessary  to  be  made,  and  from  the  work  in  physics 
and  chemistry.  History  is  not  left  out,  inasmuch  as 
the  great  mathematicians  are  considered  biograph- 
ically  and  with  reference  to  their  place  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  development  of  thought.  Many  of  the 
great  mathematicians  having  been  philosophers  as 
well,  a  great  direct  connection  with  the  history  of 
philosophy  can  be  made.  The  story  of  the  discov- 
ery of  important  theorems  ahvays  adds  wonderful 
interest. 

Mathematics  is  often  correlated  with  aesthetic  cul- 
ture, as  it  ought  to  be,  since  mathematical  propor- 
tions are  basal  in  the  assthetics  of  architecture,  and  to 
a  certain  extent  in  all  true  art. 

One  of  the  most  impressive  "  correlation  "  lessons 
I  have  witnessed  was  a  demonstration  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  cultivation  of  aesthetic  ideas  in  connection 

*  See  Dr.  A.  Thaer  in  Deutschlands  hoheres  Schulwesen  im 
19.  Jahrhundert. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  233 

with  mathematics.  The  geometry  lesson  was  upon 
mean  proportionals  ("  golden  mean "  or  goldene 
Sclimitt).  After  the  strictly  mathematical  demon- 
strations were  completed, the  application  of  this  prin- 
ciple was  discussed  in  its  more  utilitarian  aspect,  first 
considering  more  common  applications,  then  passing 
to  the  examples  in  finer  and  more  renowned  architec- 
ture, and  finally  its  application  in '  pure  art.  The 
special  application  was  made  with  reference  to 
Eaphael's  most  renowned  masterpiece,  the  Sistine 
Madonna.  The  relation  "the  lesser  j)art  is  to  the 
greater  part  as  the  greater  part  is  to  the  whole  " 
was  shown  to  maintain  in  nearly  a  dozen  group- 
ings of  prominent  points  in  the  picture.  Specimens 
of  faulty  art  were  shown  where  the  picture  had 
even  to  untrained  eyes  a  seeming  lack  of  har- 
mony. This  unharmonious  aspect  was  shown  to  be 
a  result  of  lack  of  proportion.  Varieties  of  mar- 
ginal arrangements  were  shown  to  affect  the  whole 
aspect  of  the  picture,  and  most  radically.  Even  prin- 
ciples of  physics  were  re-enforced  by  discussing  the 
positions  of  the  figures.  The  "  line  of  direction " 
was  shown  to  be  exactly  over  the  centre  of  gravity. 
And  certain  other  positions  were  only  explainable  by 
a  knowledge  of  other  physical  principles.  Such  cor- 
relation has  a  true  psychological  basis,  and  can  not 
help  but  create  higher  esthetic  ideals  as  well  as  re- 
enforce  the  scientific  truths  gained.  The  whole  ex- 
planation occupied  only  a  few  minutes,  and  no  dissi- 
pation of  energy  was  possible.  If  not  a  single  gesthetic 
ideal  had  grown  out  of  the  discussion,  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  pedagogy  Avhich  seeks  only  devices  for 


234    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

more  securely  implanting  the  cold  hard  facts  of 
science,  the  lesson  was  above  criticism.  The  four 
formal  steps — clearness,  association,  system,  meth- 
od— had  been  cxemijlilied,  and  had  provided  an  ap- 
plication of  the  principles.  And  how  much  higher 
the  aim  than  in  wholly  neglecting  the  application,  or 
in  making  some  of  those  vapid,  senseless  bases  of  cor- 
relation such  as  "  estimating  the  worth  of  the  tobac- 
co chewed  and  smoked  by  a  Virginia  planter  when 
studying  the  geography  of  Virginia  !  "  * 

Below  are  given  some  final  examination  questions, 
which  will  indicate  something  of  the  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency required  in  mathematics. 

Ashanisches  Gymnasium^  Berlin,  1895. 

1.  In  the  triangle  ABC  draw  a  line  xy  parallel 
with  B  C  so  that  (the  line  xChevag  also  drawn)  the 
triangles  Axy  and  BxC  shall  be  equal. 
:v,j. ,  2.  In  a  triangle,  the  side  c,  the  difference  between 
the  other  two  sides  a  and  h,  the  difference  between 
the  angles  A  and  B  opposite  these  sides  is  known. 
Determine  the  sides  and  the  angles. 

3.  Around  a  cone  whose  radius  is  r  the  frustum  of 
a  right  cone  is  circumscribed.  The  entire  surfaces  of 
the  two  are  in  the  ratio  of  m  :  n.  Determine  the  value 
of  the  radius  of  the  circular  bases  of  the  second. 

4.  X  :y  ^=  z:u 

X  -\-  u  —  I'i  ,      , 

-.1  V  solve. 

y  -{-  z  =  11 

a;2  +  2/^  +  2^  +  ?r  =  170  ^ 
*  As  can  be  found  in  a  certain  American  work  on  pedagogy. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  235 

Humholdt  Gymnasium,  Berlin,  1896. 

1.  The  axes  of  two  parabolas  whose  parameters 
are  pi  and  p.,  lie  along  the  same  straight  line,  but  in 
opposite  directions.  Determine  the  point  in  this 
line  from  which  the  two  parabolas  will  appear  at  the 
same  angle. 

2.  A  train  of  Teg  weight  and  cm  velocity  is  to  be 
brought  to  a  standstill  in  a  m  distance.  Determine 
{a)  the  working  power,  {h)  the  strength  of  the  brake, 
(c)  the  time  necessary  for  stopping. 

3.  In  a  paraboloid  of  revolution  whose  diameter, 
surface,  and  height  are  known,  inscribe  the  max- 
imum cylinder. 

E.     IIISTOKY    AND    GEOGKAPIIY. 

3d  Class,  Vorschule.  Home  Geography  [Heimats- 
Jcunde),  3  hours.  Development  of  geographical  ideas 
by  means  of  observations  around  the  city  (Berlin)  and 
the  province  (Brandenburg),  Introductory  work  by 
means  of  charts  and  pictures.  History  relating  to 
Berlin. 

Sexta.  Geography,  2  hours.  Fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  physical  and  mathematical  geography. 
First  introduction  to  study  of  relief  maps,  globe,  and 
charts.  Brief  general  view  of  the  physical  and  po- 
litical features  of  the  earth. 

Quinta.  Geography,  2  hours.  Physical  and  po- 
litical geography  of  Germany.  Drawing  simple 
boundaries  on  blackboard  (by  teacher). 

Quarta.     Geography,  2  hours.     Physical  and  po- 
litical geography  of  non-German  Europe,  especially 
the  Mediterranean  region. 
17 


230    SECONDARY  SCnOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

Lower  Tertia.  History,  2  hours.  Survey  of 
Grecian  history,  from  Draco  to  the  death  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  A  brief  survey  of  Roman  history 
from  Pyrrhus  to  the  death  of  Augustine.  Neces- 
sary and  important  parts  of  Oriental  history  of  civil- 
ization.    Importance  of  historical  geography. 

Loioer  Tertia.  History  and  geography,  3  hours. 
Survey  of  the  "  Kulturgeschichte  "  of  western  Eome 
from  the  death  of  Augustus,  then  German  history 
to  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Eeview  themes  of 
Quarta.  Review  of  political  geography  of  Germany, 
excepting  the  German  colonies.     Map  sketching. 

Upper  Tertia.  History  and  geograj)hy,  3  hours. 
German  history  from  the  close  of  the  Middle  Ages  to 
Frederick  the  Great.  Review  themes  of  previous  class. 
Review  physical  features  of  Germany.  Geography  of 
German  colonies.     Map  sketching  as  in  Quarta. 

Louver  Secunda.  History  and  geography,  3  hours. 
German  and  Prussian  history  from  Frederick  the 
Great  to  1888.  Review  themes  of  previous  year. 
Review  geography  of  Europe.  Elementary  mathe- 
matical geography. 

Upper  Secunda.  History  and  geography,  3  hours. 
Greek  history.  Roman  history.  Review  historical 
and  geographical  themes  of  previous  years. 

Loiver  Prima.  History  and  geography,  3  hours. 
Review  of  geography  in  connection  with  history. 
German  history  from  1273-1648  A.  i).  Most  impor- 
tant non-German  history.    Review  ancient  history. 

Upper  Prima.  History,  3  hours.  German  history, 
1648-1890.  Most  important  parts  of  foreign  history. 
Review  geography  in  connection  with  history. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  237 

As  will  be  noticed  from  tlie  school  programmes, 
the  geography  and  history  work  very  largely  coalesce. 
Except  in  the  most  elementary  work,  geography  does 
not  appear  from  the  programmes  to  be  set  apart  as  a 
separate  study.  The  real  geography,  that  which 
deals  with  the  subject  as  a  consideration  of  the  earth 
and  its  relation  to  man,  as  affecting  man,  and  in 
turn  being  modified  by  man,  is  closely  correlated 
with  history.  All  the  geographical  factors  that  have 
influenced  political,  commercial,  economic,  or  social 
conditions,  and  have  helped  to  shape  the  course  of 
historical  development,  are  largely  discussed  in  con- 
nection with  the  particular  phases  of  history  which 
they  affect. 

It  is  because  of  this  close  correlation  of  historical 
and  geographical  work  that  one  sees  history  and 
geographical  work  placed  together  in  the  programmes. 
But  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  they  are  mixed  to- 
gether promiscuously  in  the  recitation.  It  is  true 
that  the  study  of  topography,  cartography,  political 
and  commercial  geography  are  largely  correlated  with 
history,  but  an  inspection  of  any  of  the  programmes 
will  show  that,  with  the  exc.eption  of  the  unification 
for  purposes  of  review,  work  is  carried  on  quite  sepa- 
rately. In  all  of  my  visits  I  did  not  observe  more 
than  the  incidental  correlation  of  the  two  subjects. 
There  Avere  always  distinct  teaching  periods  for 
the  two  subjects.  I  have  examined  many  Schnlhe- 
riclite  (yearly  announcements)  and  have  found  no 
exceptions  to  this  division  of  work.  Many  of  them 
read  "history  and  geography,"  but  immediately 
following  the  work  is  divided.     In  one,  which  has 


238    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

the  two  grouped  under  the  topic  heading  Ge~ 
scMclite  und  (Jeograjjhie,  I  find  the  further  division 
into  "  History,  2  hours.  German  history  from  the 
Reformation  to  the  Vienna  Congress.  Geography, 
2  hours.  Xon-German  European  jihysical  and  po- 
litical geography."  (Real  -  gymnasium,  Leipzig.) 
Again,  from  the  real-school  in  Meerane  :  "  Geogra- 
phy, 2  hours.  Kingdom  of  Saxony ;  general  geog- 
raphy of  the  entire  earth.  History,  1  hour.  Biog- 
raphy from  Greek  and  Roman  history." 

The  examples  might  be  multiplied  by  referring 
to  the  Hcliulhericlite,  or  to  the  official  courses  of 
study.  It  will  be  found  that  occasionally  the  two 
are  taken  up  in  the  same  class.  But  from  the  nature 
of  the  work  it  would  be  impossible  to  handle  the  two 
entirely  simultaneously  and  do  it  successfully. 

Whenever  an  understanding  of  geographical 
features  is  necessary  to  produce  clear  historical 
conceptions,  the  geographical  instruction  is  given 
simultaneously  with  the  historical  ;  or  whenever 
historical  allusions  will  contribute  anything  to  in- 
terest, clearness,  or  toward  permanency  of  ideas, 
then  the  digression  is  made  ;  otherwise  the  two  are 
very  properly  given  at  separate  periods. 

The  phases  of  geography  mentioned  at  the  be- 
ginning may  and  ought  to  be  correlated  with  history, 
but  the  scientific  principles  relating  to  geological, 
meteorological,  or  physical  effects  must  necessarily 
be  studied  in  a  separate  class  devoted  to  them.  Tp 
stop  in  the  midst  of  historical  narrative  and  discuss 
fully  the  barometer,  trade  winds,  or  ocean  tides  would 
be  exceedingly  unpedagogical.     I  make  the  foregoing 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  239 

suggestions  because  I  think  some  Americans  have 
wholly  overestimated  the  extent  of  correlation  done 
in  German  schools  in  these  subjects.  I  could  not 
agree  that,  "  except  possibly  in  the  first  two  years  of 
the  course,  geography  is  nowhere  an  independent 
study  in  the  higher  schools.  The  general  truths  of 
mathematical  and  physical  geography  which  have  no 
direct  bearing  upon  the  events  of  history  are  taught 
incidentally,  one  might  say,  in  the  lower  grades."  * 

Of  course,  the  elementary  notions  of  geography 
must  be  built  up  separately,  and  in  part  before  the 
work  in  history,  as  such,  is  commenced.  This  is  ac- 
complished in  the  lowest  grades  in  the  Heimatshunde, 
or  home  geography.  This  locative  and  descriptive, 
largely  physical  geography,  is  later  made  more 
physico-political,  commercial,  and  social,  and  it  is 
then  that  the  facts  of  geography  begin  to  be  corre- 
lated with  the  historical  work.  The  elementary 
work  is  carried  on  much  as  in  our  own  schools.  The 
work  is  begun  by  a  consideration  of  home  geography ; 
from  this  as  a  basis,  map  language  is  learned,  relief 
forms  are  studied  from  maps  and  globes,  or,  best  of 
all,  objectively ;  then  follows  a  general  notion  of  the 
physical  and  political  geography  of  Germany. 

A  little  later  text-books  are  used  as  aids,  and  at 
the  same  time  pujiils  begin  to  learn  to  sketch  out- 
lines on  the  little  blackboards.  In  this  the  teachers 
are  very  proficient  and  are  able  to  add  much  interest 
to  the  work.  The  pupils  gain  no  very  great  facility 
in  blackboard  sketching,  because  the  small  amount 

*  School  Review,  May,  1897,  p.  263. 


240    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

of  blackboard  space  does  not  afford  much  chance  for 
practice.  Later  on  physical,  political,  and  commer- 
cial geography  are  studied  more  in  detail,  as  may  be 
seen  by  reference  to  the  detailed  outlines  given 
above.  Drawing  is  recommended  in  Prussia,  espe- 
cially during  the  last  year  of  the  work,  which  is 
usually  in  Tertia. 

Besides  the  correlation  with  history,  it  is  also 
brought  into  close  relations  with  natural  science. 
The  Prussian  "  Lehrplan  "  states  that  "  Avhether  the 
instruction  in  geography  would  be  better  given  by 
the  teacher  of  natural  science  depends  upon  the 
personal  equipment  of  the  teachers.  In  general 
it  appears  more  suitable  to  have  for  geography  the 
same  teacher  as  for  natural  science  in  the  lower 
grades,  and  the  same  as  for  history  in  the  middle 
grades.  The  reviews  in  the  upper  grades,  so  far  as 
the  political  and  physical  geography  are  concerned, 
should  be  given  by  the  teacher  of  history,  and  the 
mathematical  geography  should  be  given  by  the 
teacher  of  mathematics  or  physics." 

All  schools  are  supplied  with  an  abundance  of 
maps  and  charts  to  illustrate  the  work.  Xearly  all 
schools  are  in  regions  rich  in  historic  landmarks,  and 
drawings  and  paintings  illustrating  these  are  to  be 
found  in  most  schools.  Eelief  maps  and  outline 
maps  are  abundant  and  well  executed.  Most  teach- 
ers make  effective  use  of  photographs  of  various 
places  of  interest  and  of  historic  personages.  The 
schools  are  usually  well  supplied  with  these,  and  the 
teacher  always  solicits  the  pupils'  aid  in  collecting 
pictures  bearing  upon  particular  lessons.     It  was  in- 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  241 

teresting  to  note  the  abundance  of  practical  objec- 
tive material  that  was  arranged  in  conspicuous  places 
in  the  hallways  and  about  the  buildings  in  such  a 
way  that  pupils  could  have  them  constantly  before 
them.  For  example,  large  barometers,  thermometers, 
weather  maps,  charts  showing  the  cardinal  points, 
charts  showing  the  daily  relative  positions  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  the  earth,  etc. 

The  text-books  are  quite  diiferent  from  those 
ordinarily  used  in  American  schools.  They  are 
divided  into  two  parts,  one  containing  the  descrip- 
tive matter  and  the  other  a  separate  atlas  containing 
the  maps.  The  latter  are  beautifully  executed  in  the 
highest  art  known  to  book  and  map  makers,  but  the 
descriptive  texts  can  hardly  be  commended.  In 
matter  they  may  do,  inasmuch  as  the  teacher  is  the 
source  of  almost  all  the  facts  in  all  studies,  while  the 
text-book  is  intended  merely  to  assist  in  reviewing 
and  fixing  the  lessons ;  but  in  mechanical  execu- 
tion the  majority  of  school  geographies  are  in  every 
way  uncommendable,  except  in  price.  The  print  is 
poor,  the  matter  crowded  and  wholly  unattractive  in 
arrangement.  With  such  a  prevalence  of  spectacled 
eyes  as  one  sees  in  German  schools,  it  is  a  wonder  that 
such  text-books  are  tolerated.  They  are  usually  in 
Irochure  form,  and  are  therefore  cheap.  But  better 
executed  books  are  a  physiological  necessity,  and  the 
advantage  to  be  derived  from  more  attractive  books 
is  an  important  psychological  consideration. 

One  of  the  best  features  of  geographical  instruc- 
tion is  that  of  making  frequent  excursions.  Thus, 
objects  are  studied  instead  of  words.     In  a  country 


242    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

so  full  of  historic  landmarks  it  is  not  difficult  to 
make  these  excursions  frequently  and  inexpensively. 
For  example,  around  Leipzig  are  clustered  many 
spots  upon  which  have  been  enacted  some  of  the 
most  thrilling  dramas  of  human  life.  Half  an  hour's 
walk  to  the  eastward  brings  the  school  to  the  Xapo- 
leon  Monument,  erected  in  memory  of  the  battle  of 
Leipzig,  October  18,  1813.  The  stone  stands  upon 
the  spot  where  Napoleon  watched  the  progress  of  the 
battle  all  one  long  night.  On  the  monument  is  the 
inscription : 

"HiER  WEPLTE  Napoleon  am  18ten  Okt.,  1813, 

Die  VoELKERSCnLACHT  beobachtend. 

Der  Herr  1ST  der  rechte  Kriegsmakn, 

IIerr  1ST  SEINE  Name." 

How  much  more  of  historic  and  patriotic  interest 
can  be  infused  into  a  class  by  taking  them  to  the 
place  and  explaining  the  details  of  the  battle,  as  well 
as  the  general  plan  of  the  war,  than  by  reading  them 
from  a  book  or  by  simple  narration ! 

To  the  north  of  the  city  within  a  few  miles  is  the 
spot  where  Gustavus  Adolphus  fell  during  the  Thirty 
Years'  War.  Just  south  of  Xapoleon  Monument  is 
Monarch's  Hill,  where  the  heads  of  three  great 
nations  met  in  council.  Within  the  city  are  other 
battle  monuments,  also  monuments  to  Luther, 
Goethe,  Schiller,  and  other  renowned  Germans.  In 
the  heart  of  the  city  is  Auerbach's  cellar,  where 
Goethe  places  a  scene  in  Faust.  In  other  parts 
may  be  found  Goethe's  residence  when  a  student, 
Schiller's  residence,  the  Pleisseburg  Castle,  the  old 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  243 

city  hall  (eight  huuclred  years  old),  and  scores  of 
other  landmarks  too  numerous  to  mention,  had  I 
space.  All  these  are  visited  by  teachers  and  pupils. 
Other  cities  are  equally  rich  in  associations.  In  the 
above  manner  history  and  geography  are  truly  cor- 
related, interest  is  awakened,  life  is  quickened,  and 
new  ideals  are  formed. 

To  do  likewise  in  America  is  not  possible  to  the 
same  extent  because  of  distance  and  lack  of  historic 
landmarks,  but  every  locality  has  its  oldest  buildings, 
a  historic  battle  ground,  a  colonial  church,  an  In- 
dian council  ground,  or  historic  landmark  of  some 
sort  or  other.  Points  of  geographic  interest  (physi- 
ographic, political,  or  commercial)  are  also  usually 
within  easy  reach.  To  study  objectively  the  means 
at  command  is  most  sure  to  awaken  true  historic 
and  geographic  interest,  and  that  is  the  chief  aim. 

In  Prussia,  the  Lehrziel  or  end  to  be  attained  in 
teaching  is  stated  thus  : 

"  Knowledge  of  the  epoch-making  events  of  the 
world's  history,  esioecially  of  the  German  and  Prus- 
sian history,  in  connection  with  causes,  effects,  and 
the  development  of  historical  ideas."  (Schulord- 
nung,  1891.) 

"  In  Bavaria  the  aim  in  the  classes  from  the  third 
to  the  fifth,  to  be  attained  mainly  through  biography, 
is  the  impressing  of  a  solid  foundation  of  historical 
data,  and  in  general  outlines  to  give  a  view  of  Greek, 
Koman,  German,  and  Bavarian  history.  From  the 
sixth  to  the  ninth  classes  the  aim  should  be  to  in- 
vestigate facts  more  thoroughly,  to  awaken  and  de- 
velop capabilities,  to  rearrange  and  make  individual 


244    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMAXY. 

the  materials  that  liave  been  acquired  from  given 
standpoints."  (Schulordnung,  1891.) 

In  Baden  the  conrse  in  history  is  so  arranged 
that  the  entire  province  of  history  shall  be  gone  over 
twice,  and  with  special  prominence  given  to  ancient 
Roman  and  Grecian  and  German  history.  In  the 
first  historical  instruction  in  Quarta  and  Tertia  a 
comprehensive  view  is  presented.  Here  more  at- 
tention is  given  to  the  biographical  side  of  the 
work.  In  Quarta  the  main  portions  of  ancient  his- 
tory are  considered,  and  during  the  two  years  in 
Tertia  the  events  beginning  with  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century  are  studied.  Following  this 
the  events  clustered  about  1813-'14,  and  lastly  the 
pivotal  point  in  modern  German  history,  the  war  of 
1870-'71.  During  the  last  four  years  the  entire 
work  is  gone  over  again  with  the  view  of  making  it 
a  connected  whole,  and  of  course  from  a  more  philo- 
sophical point  of  view  and  in  a  much  more  compre- 
hensive manner.  During  the  entire  course  special 
stress  is  laid  upon  the  geographical  relations  neces- 
sary to  a  clear  and  comprehensive  grasp  of  the  his- 
torical facts.  The  work  is  followed  out  according 
to  some  good  text-book,  with,  of  course,  lectures  or 
talks  by  the  teacher  to  elucidate  and  supplement  the 
text.  Pupils  are  encouraged  to  arrange  the  materi- 
als in  such  a  manner  that  they  can  talk  connectedly 
upon  topics  (Schulordnung). 

Throughout  all  Germany  the  courses  in  history, 
as  well  as  those  in  mathematics,  and  in  fact  all 
other  subjects,  follow  the  spiral  plan.  The  instruc- 
tion is  so  arranged  that  the  entire  course  forms  "  an 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  245 

ever-ascending  spiral  from  the  apex  of  which  an 
outlook  over  the  past  is  obtained."  *  The  course  in 
history,  as  carried  out  in  German  schools,  next  to 
the  classical  branches,  is  in  one  direction  one  of  the 
strongest  portions  of  the  entire  school  curriculum. 
In  another  significant  direction  it  is  one  of  the 
weakest  parts  of  the  curriculum.  The  course  in  his- 
tory, together  with  the  instruction  in  the  classics, 
serves  to  shape  the  tliinking  and  the  course  of  ac- 
tion pursued  by  the  Germans  perhaps  more  than  any 
and  all  other  features  connected  with  their  educa- 
tional system.  The  policy  of  the  German  joeople  is 
reflected  in  its  historical  curriculum.  The  historical 
instruction  contributes  to  make  that  policy  what  it 
is.  In  the  first  place,  the  course  of  instruction  is 
grounded  upon  instruction  in  the  classical  period. 
This  serves  to  give  a  wide  knowledge  of  the  j^ast. 
And  such  a  \dew  can  not  but  aid  in  creating  a  rever- 
ence for  the  past  and  its  institutions.  A  thoroughly 
developed  course,  with  the  groundwork  in  the  classi- 
cal period  of  history,  must  impart  what  we  term  the 
"  historic  sense."  It  must  show  at  what  cost  of  time 
and  effort  all  enduring  institutions  have  been  raised 
into  existence.  Such  a  training  can  not  fail  to  tend 
to  produce  a  careful,  conservative,  deliberative  peo- 
ple. Institutions  that  have  been  judged  fit  to  sur- 
vive will  not  be  swept  rashly  away  in  the  flush  of  a 
momentary  impulse.  All  German  institutions  are 
rooted  deep  in  the  past,  and  only  those  new  institu- 
tions may  survive  which  root  themselves  firmly  in 

*  Lucy  M.  Salmon,  Ed.  Rev.,  June,  1898. 


240    SEICONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

the  passing  generations.  That  which  is  without  a 
wide  expanse  of  historical  background  represents  to 
a  German  mind  the  essence  of  instability.  To  them 
a  country  like  America  is  viewed  only  as  an  experi- 
ment. They  behold  a  heterogeneous  mass  of  ma- 
terials gathered  together  haphazard,  and  in  con- 
tinual danger  of  explosion  should  some  slight 
anarchistic  wave  disturb  its  equilibrium.  To  a  Ger- 
man who  has  never  been  in  America  it  is  inconceiv- 
able that  there  should  have  evolved  from  the  hetero- 
geneous elements  any  such  institution  as  a  sta- 
ble government,  possessing  firmly  founded,  well- 
equipped  and  well  -  ordered  universities,  schools, 
churches,  etc.  American  institutions  are  viewed  by 
Germans  much  as  they  view  our  railroad  trains — 
sehr  gefdhrlich — wonderfully  rapid  but  terribly  dan- 
gerous and  destructive. 

The  German  venerates  age,  solidity,  stability,  and 
shrinks  from  the  thoughts  of  hurry,  boldness,  and 
change.  To  him  these  latter  mean  dissolution  and 
disintegration.  Such  are  some  of  the  characteristics 
of  the  Germans,  and  the  historical  instruction  tends 
to  preserve  these  ideals.  Another  feature  of  German 
life  is  the  intense  love  and  devotion  to  the  Fatherland. 
Nowhere  else,  perhaps,  may  be  witnessed  such  fealty 
to  country  as  in  Germany.  Every  individual  feels 
not  only  a  sense  of  duty  in-  being  a  protector  of  his 
country's  interests,  but  he  feels  a  thrill  of  pride  and 
love  in  having  this  duty  confided  to  him.  This  spirit 
is  kindled  in  the  breast  of  every  subject  as  soon  as 
he  begins  to  listen  to  nursery  tales  ;  and  the  feeling 
once  awakened  is  never  allowed  to  wane  in  inten- 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  247 

sity.  The  historical  instruction,  in  addition  to  being 
founded  upon  the  past,  has  for  its  centre,  from  which 
all  instruction  radiates,  the  Fatherland.  Not  only 
German  history  by  all  pupils,  but  special  local  history 
of  each  region  is  thoroughly  learned.  The  achieve- 
ments of  the  long  lines  of  princes,  potentates,  war- 
riors, and  Church  Fathers  can  be  recited  with  sur- 
prising glibness  and  accuracy  by  boys  of  a  dozen  years 
of  age.  Xo  course  of  study  is  j)lanned  without  hav- 
ing some  clause  to  the  effect  that  "  special  considera- 
tion is  to  be  paid  to  German  history  and  to  the 
history  of  the  province  in  question." 

"  The  '  Lehrplan  '  of  1892  brings  prominently  to 
the  front  the  necessity  of  understanding  the  events  in 
German  and  Prussian  history.  It  is  the  national 
history  rather  than  the  universal  which  is  empha- 
sized ;  the  political,  which  has  culminated  in  a  new 
and  regenerated  German  Empire,  rather  than  the 
general,  which  deals  with  salient  points  in  the  prog- 
ress of  civilization.  It  shows  clearly  the  determina- 
tion of  the  Government  to  make  use  of  the  schools 
in  stemming  the  tides  of  socialism  and  liberalism. 
History  is  to  be  taught  not  altogether  as  a  means  of 
intellectual  training,  nor  as  an  essential  part  of  a 
liberal  education,  nor  yet  as  an  independent  science, 
but  preeminently  with  a  view  to  the  malting  of  pa- 
triotic citizens."  * 

A  point  of  seeming  weakness  is  noticeable,  inas- 
much as  the  course  in  history  fails  to  give  sufficient 
place  to  that  which  is  modern  and  outside  of  Ger- 

*  Jus.  E.  Russell,  School  Review,  May,  1897. 


248    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

man3^  A  careful  examination  of  programmes  fails  to 
reveal  any  provision  for  the  definite  study  of  English 
or  American  history.  Some  consideration  may  be 
assumed  in  the  study  of  extra-German  relations  of 
universal  historical  importance  {ausserdeutschen  Ver- 
hciltnisse  von  iveltgeKcliiclUliche  Bedeutumj),  etc.,  but 
at  most  it  is  only  very  superficial  and  insufficient. 
In  the  case  of  America  it  may  be  argued  with 
some  Justice  that  it  is  too  young  a  nation — that  in 
a  strict  sense  it  has  little  history ;  but  the  same 
explanation  does  not  apply  to  the  instruction  in  its 
geography.  Were  an  adequate  geographical  consid- 
eration accorded  to  it  with  proper  historical  set- 
tings, the  course  in  this  particular  would  not  be  so 
open  to  criticism.  But  the  same  feeling  is  mani- 
fested toward  a  geographical  consideration  of  Eng- 
land. As  a  result,  gross  ignorance  of  existing  con- 
ditions is  manifested  by  even  educated  Germans 
concerning  a  country  of  twenty  times  the  size  of 
their  own  and  with  fifteen  million  more  people  than 
their  own  country.  To  many  Germans  ]S  ew  York, 
Xorth  America,  and  South  America  are  almost 
synonymous  terms. 

But  even  were  America  to  go  unconsidered,  ex- 
cejit  in  a  cursory  way,  England  deserves  thorough 
consideration.  A  country  which  has  influenced  civi- 
lization so  powerfully,  a  country  whose  history  is  as 
old  as  that  of  Germany,  a  country  which  has  spread 
its  language  to  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth,  and 
which  is  tending  rapidly  toward  making  its  language 
the  world  language,  a  country  which  has  proved  her- 
self so  strong  a  rival  of  Germany,  and  which  even 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  249 

has  had  so  many  interests  in  common  with  Germany, 
can  not  well  be  passed  over  with  a  few  words. 

The  extreme  conservatism  of  the  Germans  is  one 
of  the  greatest  drawbacks  to  their  advancement. 
Unwilling  to  allow  innovations,  and  loath  to  acknowl- 
edge the  superiority  of  any  other  country  in  any 
particular,  their  eyes  are  not  infrequently  blinded  to 
the  merits  of  experiments  and  discoveries  the  adap- 
tation of  which  would  often  aid  in  their  own  advance- 
ment. As  indicated  in  another  place,  their  extreme 
conservatism  has  allowed  them  to  fall  behind  most 
other  countries  in  such  important  directions  as  the 
education  of  women. 

A  most  undesirable  characteristic  of  the  German 
nation  noticeable  to  all  foreigners  is  their  lack  of 
cosmoiDolitanism.  Their  manners,  customs,  institu- 
tions, machinery,  implements,  school  furniture,  man- 
ner of  accomplishing  all  practical  results,  all  indicate 
a  lack  of  leavening  ideas  derived  from  different  na- 
tionalities. Xo  one  individual  or  nation  can  monop- 
olize all  the  best  ideas,  and  in  these  days  of  rapid 
transit  and  electric  communication  can  any  nation 
afford  to  ignore  the  accomplishments  of  others? 
The  nation  that  accepts  the  doctrine  of  eclecticism 
must  profit  thereby,  while  the  one  that  is  all  absorbed 
and  satisfied  by  its  own  achievements  will  as  surely 
find  itself  distanced  in  important  directions. 

On  the  whole,  I  believe  that  the  historical  teach- 
ing is  well  done.  The  teachers,  at  least,  accomplish 
their  first  point :  the  facts  of  history  from  the  clas- 
sical periods  down  to  the  present  concerning  those 
countries  which  are  studied  are  firmly  fixed  in  mind. 


250    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

At  the  end  of  the  secondary  school  course  the  German 
boys  are  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  history  of 
their  own  country  and  of  all  those  nations  from  which 
their  civilization  luis  directly  or  indirectly  developed. 
They  have  a  thoroughly  built  and  organized  back- 
ground of  historical  events,  and  the  only  criticism 
that  may  be  offered  is  the  one  previously  pointed  out. 
Their  horizon  extends  spatially  in  only  one  direction, 
and  that  toward  the  Orient.  But  the  results,  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  nationalizing  tendencies  incul- 
cated, are  certainly  gratifying.  I  believe,  however, 
that  the  time  is  ripe  for  a  larger  world  view.  Broader 
sympathies  may  be  fostered  by  extending  the  range 
of  historical  studies  without  endangering  in  any  way 
the  primary  end  now  aimed  at.  The  psychological 
principle  of  repetition  is  thoroughly  carried  out  in 
their  history  teaching.  The  work  begins  in  the  low- 
est class  and  extends  to  the  highest.  They  never 
feel  that  they  have  "  finished "  the  subject.  The 
same  ground  is  continually  crossed  and  recrossed, 
viewed  from  different  standpoints  and  from  positions 
where  all  can  be  surveyed ;  the  relations  of  cause 
and  effect  are  thoroughly  studied  until  all  becomes 
a  closely  and  firmly  associated  whole.  They  believe 
in  learning  much  about  a  few  things  instead  of  a 
little  about  many.  In  this  lies  their  greatest  peda- 
gogical strength. 

F.     NATUP.AL    SCIENCES. 

Sexta.  Nature  lessons,  2  hours.  Summer  :  De- 
scription of  available  flowering  plants,  considering 
parts  and  forms  of  roots,  stems,  leaves,  and  easily 


PRESENT   COURSES  OF   STUDY.  251 

understood  flowers  and  fruits.  Winter :  A  descrip- 
tion of  important  mammals  and  birds,  considering 
form,  colour,  size,  the  available  specimens  determin- 
ing the  species.  Study  modes  of  life,  usefulness,  or 
destructiveness. 

Quinta.  Xature  lessons,  3  hours.  Summer : 
Complete  knowledge  of  outer  organs  of  flowering 
plants.  Description  and  comparison  of  related  spe- 
cies that  are  accessible  at  the  same  time.  Winter  : 
Description  of  important  accessible  vertebrates, 
considering  manner  of  life,  use,  or  harmfulness. 
Fundamental  principles  of  bone  structure  of  man. 
Exercises  in  simple  schematic  drawing  of  what  is 
seen. 

Quartet.  Xature  lessons,  2  hours.  Summer :  A 
comparative  description  of  related  kinds  and  species 
of  flowering  plants  (determined  by  available  speci- 
mens). Consideration  of  natural  systems  of  classi- 
fication. Living  phenomena  of  plants.  Winter : 
Lower  animals  and  their  enemies.  Special  consid- 
eration of  insects.  Continue  drawing  what  is  ob- 
served. 

Loiver  Tertia.  Nature  lessons,  2  hours.  Summer  : 
Description  of  some  of  the  more  difficult  plant  species 
to  complete  knowledge  of  form.  Systematic  botany 
and  biology.  Discussion  of  the  most  important  use- 
ful foreign  plants.  Winter:  jinatomy  and  physi- 
ology of  plants.  Cryptogams.  Diseases  of  plants. 
Ill  the  last  quarter  of  the  year,  survey  of  the  animal 
kingdom.     Distribution  of  animals. 

Upper  Tertia.  Physiology  and  physics,  2  hours. 
Human  body  and  care  of  the  health.  Preparatory 
18 


252    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

ph5'sical  science.  Mecliaiiieal  phenomena.  Impor- 
tant parts  of  heat. 

Lower  Secunda.  Physics,  2  hours.  Magnetism, 
electricity,  the  important  chemical  phenomena, 
acoustics,  and  selected  sections  of  optics. 

Vpinr  Secunda.  Physics,  2  hours.  Magnetism, 
electricity,  heat,  meteorology.  Eeview  fundamentals 
of  chemistry. 

Loiver  Prima.  Physics,  2  hours.  Mechanics  of 
solids,  fluids,  and  gases.     Acoustics. 

Upper  Prima.  Physics,  2  hours.  02"ttics,  parts 
I  and  II.  Mathematical  and  astronomical  geog- 
raphy. 

In  the  real-gymnasia  and  higher  real-schools  the 
same  subjects  and  the  same  topics  are  covered,  only 
more  thoroughly.  In  botany  and  geology  more  is 
learned  of  microscopical  structure,  and  classification 
is  learned  more  thoroughly.  In  physics,  more  of  the 
mathematical  side  of  theoretical  physics  is  covered ; 
and  in  chemistry,  besides  taking  organic  chemistry 
in  addition  to  the  inorganic,  some  simple  laboratory 
work  is  expected  of  the  students.  Crystallography 
receives  more  extended  consideration  also. 

In  the  lower  grades  the  work  is  entirely  descrip- 
tive, dealing  with  the  outward  characteristics  of  the 
objects  dealt  with,  whether  plants  or  animals,  or  from 
the  inorganic  kingdom.  At  this  age  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  consider  the  minute  inner  organization.  Mi- 
croscopic structural  relations  and  processes  of  de- 
velopment would  be  out  of  j)lace  here.  "  This,  and 
a  more  exact  knowledge  of  systems,  as  well  as  inde- 
pendent investigations,  belong  to  the  higher  grades 


PRESENT   COURSES  OF  STUDY.  £53 

or  to  private  interest."  *  Study  at  this  age  should 
give  "  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  home  vicinity, 
a  living  Anschatim/f/  or  mental  picture  of  that  which 
is  foreign,  an  understanding  of  the  great  thoughts  of 
.'N'ature,  a  sense  of  respect  for  the  smallest  apparently 
insignificant  things,  a  desire  for  and  some  skill  in 
observation."  f 

The  courses,  whether  in  the  gymnasia  or  the  real- 
istic institutions,  are  divided  into  two  parts :  during 
the  first  four  years  the  time  is  devoted  to  Naturhe- 
schreihuug,  or  description  of  Xature,  while  in  the 
last  five  years  the  more  serious  work  of  physics, 
chemistry,  and  mineralogy  are  considered.  The  main 
difference  between  the  courses  in  the  classical  and 
realistic  schools  is  one  of  amount.  Sometimes  min- 
eralogy and  chemistry  receive  no  consideration  in  the 
gymnasia.  The  differences  in  time  and  courses  can 
be  seen  from  the  accompanying  tables. 

Throughout  all  the  grades,  in  all  branches  of 
Xature  lessons,  excellent  appliances  are  found  in 
every  school  for  demonstrational  purposes.  This 
material  is  for  use  almost  solely  by  the  teacher,  not 
the  pupil.  There  is  always  at  hand  a  wealth  of 
maps,  charts,  models,  and  apparatus.  I  have  seen  in 
real-schools  and  real-gymnasia  cabinets  of  specimens 
from  the  animal,  mineral,  and  vegetable  kingdoms, 
coloured  plates,  and  wax  and  ijainer-maclw  models,  as 
rich  in  quantity  and  quality  as  those  possessed  by 
many  ordinary  colleges.     The  charts  and  coloured 

*  G.  Uttendorfer,  Preface  to  Leitfaden  der  Naturkunde  fur 
mittlere  uiid  hohere  Schuleii. 
f  Loe.  cit. 


254    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

plates  are  usually  on  stiff  cardboard  about  28  X  36 
iuches,  and  are  provided  with  appliances  for  hanging 
them  before  the  class  when  used  for  demonstrational 
purposes. 

Among  the  plant  models  and  plants,  not  only  the 
cryjDtogams,  but  the  phanerogams,  are  fully  repre- 
sented ;  mosses,  microscopic  water  plants,  and  uni- 
cellular as  well  as  multicellular  plants  and  animals. 
In  one  exercise  with  a  class  of  boys  from  thirteen  to 
fourteen  years  old  I  saw  a  collection  of  charts  and 
wax  models,  illustrating  the  marchantia  and  other 
liverworts,  equal  to  any  university  collection  I  ever 
saw. 

All  schools  are  well  equipped  with  the  most  im- 
proved apparatus  and  excellent  cabinets  of  accessory 
materials.  It  will  be  unnecessary  to  enumerate  the 
pieces  of  apparatus,  or  even  to  give  a  general  outline 
of  the  accessory  appliances.  In  the  real-schools  and 
real-gymnasia  the  outfit  in  botany,  zoology,  physics, 
and  chemistry  contain  everything  necessary  for  dem- 
onstrational purposes.  There  are  usually  materials 
sufficient  to  enable  the  teacher  to  carry  on  research 
work.  In  the  gymnasia  the  outfit  is  usually  limited 
to  the  most  necessary  pieces  of  apparatus  and  to 
typical  specimens  in  botany  and  zoology. 

But  work  in  all  schools  is  only  demonstrational, 
since  only  a  few  schools  are  fitted  uj)  with  labora- 
tories for  individual  work.  Some  of  our  modern 
high  schools,  with  their  magnificently  appointed  lab- 
oratories and  workshops,  are  beyond  comparison 
with  the  German  schools.  All  the  laboratories  there 
are  may  be  found  in  the  higher  real-schools,  and  oc- 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  255 

casionally  in  the  real-gymnasia.  The  reason  for  the 
lack  of  them  is  not  dilficult  to  find.  The  courses 
are  so  overcrowded  that  there  is  no  time  left  for  in- 
dividual experimentation.  All  experiments  are  made 
by  the  instructor  in  the  presence  of  the  class.  He 
questions  as  he  goes  along,  and  does  not  leave  the  ex- 
periment until  the  principle  is  understood  by  all.  In 
many  respects  this  is  better  than  much  of  the  so- 
called  independent  investigation  that  is  allowed  in 
our  own  high  schools,  and  even  in  the  colleges,  where 
students  are  told  to  perform  experiments,  or  are  given 
a  manual  of  instructions  to  follow.  They  are  to  ex- 
periment, observe,  infer,  and  record.  Not  knowing 
how  to  observe  or  what  to  observe,  nor  having  suffi- 
cient training  to  make  proper  inferences,  the  work 
dwindles  into  purposeless  (unless  getting  through  is 
a  purpose)  mechanical  manipulation  of  apparatus, 
and  just  as  mechanical  recording.  This  is  not  neces- 
sary, nor  is  it  the  universal  condition  of  affairs,  for 
many  of  our  high  schools  do  most  creditable  work. 
But  with  inexperienced  teachers  the  work  may  and 
often  does  miscarry.  It  is  only  by  a  judicious  blend- 
ing of  experimentation  with  proper  class  demonstra- 
tion, criticism,  and  questioning  that  the  work  in  nat- 
ural sciences  is  successful.  If  there  is  no  experi- 
mentation the  work  becomes  mere  verbal  gymnas- 
tics ;  if  the  proper  class  work  is  lacking,  it  dwindles 
into  manual  gymnastics  or  into  rule-of-thumb  meth- 
ods at  best. 

The  German  method,  although  it  does  not  permit 
the  geniuses — and  geniuses  are  scarce — to  explore 
fields  for  themselves,  at  least  guides  and  directs  the 


256    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

work,  so  that  the  basal  principles  of  the  science  are 
not  hurried  over  half  realized.  The  fundamentals 
become  so  systematically  arranged  in  the  students' 
minds  that  they  can  begin  individual  investigation 
at  a  later  date  if  they  choose.  ^Moreover,  the  experi- 
mentation, which  always  comes  out  as  intended  when 
manipulated  by  the  teacher,  kindles  a  spirit  of  en- 
thusiasm and  awakens  curiosity.  When  apparatus 
is  manipulated  by  unguided  students  the  experi- 
ments often  fail  and  create  weariness  and  disgust. 
Manual  dexterity  can  be  acquired  later  more  quickly 
than  scientific  principles.  And  yet,  if  time  were 
allowed  for  considerable  individual  laboratory  experi- 
mentation the  courses  would  be  much  stronger  than 
at  present. 

I  think  that  in  the  lower  classes  the  lack  of  the 
laboratory  method  is  specially  marked.  Not  that 
there  is  any  lack  of  objective  material  always  in  the 
classroom,  and  not  that  it  is  not  used,  but  it  is  used 
and  handled  exclusively  by  the  wrong  person — the 
teacher.  I  have  already  intimated  that  the  charts, 
models,  and  apparatus  are  rich  in  quantity  and  qual- 
ity, and,  moreover,  for  botanical  study  all  the  cities 
have  special  gardens,  from  which  plants  are  delivered 
to  all  the  schools  as  they  are  required.  By  this 
means  the  schools  are  sure  of  being  supplied  with 
sufficient  materials,  and  at  the  proper  time,  on 
demand. 

There  are  often  arrangements  also  whereby  arti- 
cles from  museums  are  supplied  to  the  schools.  But 
with  all  the  materials  at  hand  for  study,  very  little 
of  it  gets  into  the  proper  hands — the  pupil's.    In  the 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.      £57 

lesson  on  the  marcliantia,  referred  to  previously,  the 
diagrams  were  profuse,  fine  wax  models  were  numer- 
ous, and  the  teacher's  explanations  lucid,  concise,  and 
scientific,  but  the  majority  of  the  class  were  not  within 
twenty  feet  of  the  models,  and  I  doubt  whether  a 
single  one  ever  saw  the  real  plant.  There  certainly  • 
were  no  plants  in  the  room,  and  no  instructions  were 
given  for  procuring  them.  The  charts  and  models 
were  systematically  explained,  and  the  pupils  an- 
swered well  when  questioned  in  review,  but  I  could 
not  help  feeling  that  scarcely  one  of  those  boys  would 
be  able  to  distinguish  between  marchantia  and  mush- 
rooms. Indeed  I  believe  from  the  models  and  charts 
mushrooms  would  come  nearer  the  pupils'  ideas  of 
the  size.  Professor  Russell  also  writes  (School  Review, 
January,  1897)  that, "  while  in  theory  each  pupil  is  ex- 
pected to  have  in  his  hands  a  specimen  of  all  the  com- 
mon plants  as  they  are  discussed  in  class,  I  have  seen 
the  pea  studied  by  a  class  of  thirty  boys  from  a  model 
that  never  left  the  teacher's  desk  during  the  hour, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  lesson  not  a  word  was  said 
about  noting  the  plant  in  its  cultivated  state,  al- 
though acres  of  it  were  growing  within  a  mile  of  the 
site  ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  home  task  assigned  was 
to  copy  the  drawing  given  in  the  text-book.  I  still 
have  my  doubts  whether  the  majority  of  the  class 
did  not  conceive  of  the  true  flower  as  being  about  a 
foot  in  diameter." 

The  school  excursion  plays  a  most  important  role 
in  the  study  of  Kature  as  well  as  in  history  and  geog- 
raphy. Its  value  is  great,  but  still  it  can  not  be  expect- 
ed to  take  the  place  of  carefully  planned  laboratory 


258   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

investigation.  From  the  field  the  rehitions  of  the 
different  kingdoms  cun  well  be  studied,  the  natural 
conditions  under  which  various  products  are  found 
and  the  elements  of  geographical  distribution  may 
be  learned.  From  the  field  materials  may  be  secured 
and  gross  anatomy  observed  in  a  general  way,  but  it 
must  not  be  allowed  to  usurp  the  rightful  place  of 
laboratory  and  classroom  investigation. 

In  some  schools  I  witnessed  the  attempt  to  teach 
obscure  life  processes,  such  as  assimilation  and  repro- 
duction in  the  liverworts,  to  very  young  classes. 
The  lesson  on  the  marchantia,  before  referred  to, 
was  in  Quarta.  This,  it  seems  to  me,  Avas  a  serious 
error.  All  the  pupils  could  carry  away  were  words. 
The  facts  had  no  objective  meaning. 

In  mineralogy  the  technical  significance  of  min- 
erals and  a  description  of  the  chemical  and  crystallo- 
graphic  characters  are  avoided.  The  more  outward 
characteristics  are  observed,  and  the  general  place  in 
Nature  is  the  chief  feature  to  be  shown. 

Considerable  prominence  is  given  to  the  indus- 
trial value  of  plants,  animals,  and  minerals.  This  is 
a  point  of  great  significance,  for,  while  aifording 
mental  discipline,  a  stock  of  practical  knowledge  is 
being  acquired.  The  text-books  on  natural  science 
have  some  manifest  advantages  over  our  own.  In 
America  the  writers  of  elementary  text-books  fall 
into  the  error  of  trying  to  make  things  very  simple, 
and  by  doing  so  they  make  the  instruction  childish. 
In  Germany  the  desire  to  make  them  systematic  and 
logical  is  rather  at  the  expense  of  adaptability  to  the 
learners'  needs.     But  as  far  as  the  work  is   carried 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  259 

on  things  are  called  by  their  right  names,  and  hence 
no  unlearning  is  necessitated.  The  future  work  is 
an  extension,  an  "  Ergiinzung,"  and  not  a  rectifica- 
tion. 

Considered  as  a  whole,  I  think  that  the  results  of 
the  work  in  natural  science  are  good.  The  strong 
features  are  its  distribution  through  a  long  period  of 
time  and  its  correlation.  By  the  distribution  pupils 
are  kept  for  a  long  time  in  acquaintance  with  the 
subjects,  and  the  residuum  of  knowledge  about  them 
is  much  greater  than  can  possibly  result  from  ac- 
quaintance with  the  subjects  for  a  year  at  most — 
often  a  term  or  so — and  then  total  abandonment. 
In  a  case  of  simple  memory — e.  g.,  a  quotation  one 
wishes  to  keep  in  mind  after  learning — it  is  far  better 
to  repeat  once  a  day  for  ten  days  than  once  an  hour 
for  ten  successive  hours.  If  the  intervals  be  not  too 
long  the  greater  the  length  of  time  between  repeti- 
tions the  stronger  will  be  the  resulting  memory. 

The  attention  which  is  given  to  judicious  corre- 
lation of  subjects  in  the  German  schools  leads  pupils, 
I  believe,  to  have  a  better  conception  of  the  relation 
which  the  parts  of  subjects  bear  to  each  other,  the 
relation  between  different  subjects,  and  to  all  knowl- 
edge as  a  unity,  than  is  usually  the  case  in  too  many 
of  our  schools.  In  short,  the  substructure  of  philo- 
sophical thinking  is  better  laid  than  in  our  own 
schools,  where  pupils  "  finish  "  this  subject  and  that 
and  never  refer  to  them  again,  and  are  never  led  to 
suspect  tliat  there  are  any  relations  whatever. 

At  the  end  of  the  school  course  the  pupils  from 
the  gymnasia   are   about   as    far   advanced   in   the 


260    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

natural  sciences  as  pupils  from  our  best  high  schools, 
those  from  the  higher  real-schools  a  little  further, 
especially  in  chemistry  and  mineralogy,  while  the 
gymnasial  pupils  are  less  advanced — that  is,  meas- 
ured by  the  amount  of  ground  covered.  This 
statement  is  supported  by  the  fact  that  the  lowest 
courses  offered  by  the  universities  are  fully  as  elemen- 
tary as  those  offered  in  our  own  universities.  The 
supply  is  in  response  to  a  demand.  It  ought  to  be 
stated  that  in  physics  more  attention  has  been  given 
to  the  mathematical  side  than  with  us,  so  that  with 
the  principles  firmly  fixed  in  mind,  even  though 
some  experimental  knoAvledge  has  been  slighted,  their 
students  are  rather  better  able  to  begin  strictly  scien- 
tific considerations  of  the  subject  when  they  enter 
the  university  than  students  from  our  high  schools. 

G.    GERMAN. 
(a)    Vorscliule. 

1st  class,  ^  hours.  Exercises  upon  elementary 
sounds.  Letters  used  in  writing  and  printing  (Ger- 
man). Heading  of  connected  parts  of  primer.  Writ- 
ing dictated  words  and  sentences.  Short  dictation 
lessons  from  the  reading  book  which  have  been  pre- 
viously talked  about  and  also  copied.  Learn  to 
recognize  nouns.  Capitalization,  "  umlauting,"  con- 
versation exercises  based  upon  language  charts,  exer- 
cises in  narration. 

2d  class,  7  hours.  Exercises  in  mechanical  read- 
ing and  conversation  concerning  the  contents.  Gram- 
mar :   parts  of  speech,  subject  predicate,  declension 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  2G1 

of  substantives  and  personal  pronouns,  conjugation 
in  the  direct  tenses.  Orthograpliy  and  dictated  les- 
sons.    Learning  fables  and  poems. 

3d  class,  6  hours.  Exercises  in  mechanical  and 
expressive  reading.  Narration  of  what  has  been  read 
or  heard.  Eecitation  of  short  poems  and  exercises 
read.  Simple  and  complex  sentences,  parts  of  speech, 
conjugation  in  the  active  and  passive  voice  in  the  in- 
dicative and  subjunctive  modes,  prepositions.  Dicta- 
tion exercises. 

(b)    Gymnasium. 

Sexta,  4  hours.  Grammar  :  parts  of  speech,  mem- 
bers of  simple  sentences,  difference  between  strong 
and  weak  declensions.  Correct  writing  from  dicta- 
tion. Reading  prose  and  poetry.  Fables,  tales,  nar- 
ratives from  Vaterldndischen  Sage,  and  history.  Ora- 
reproduction  of  same  by  pupils.  Memorizing  and  ex- 
pressive recitation  of  poems.  "  Lebensbilder  "  from 
the  "  Yaterland."  History  from  Kaiser  Wilhelm  I 
to  Karl  the  Great. 

Quitita,  3  hours.  Simj)le  and  complex  sentences, 
necessary  parts  of  compound  sentences.  Correct 
writing  and  punctuation  twice  w^eekly  in  dictation 
exercises.  Oral  narration  by  pupils.  First  attempts 
at  written  reproduction  (in  class).  Narration  of 
stories  from  Greek  and  Roman  mythology.  Other 
work  as  in  Sexta. 

Qnarta,  3  hours.  Compound  sentences.  Most 
important  parts  of  etymology  with  application  to 
typical  examples.  Punctuation.  Correct  writing  in 
class.     Home  composition   every   six   weeks.     Read 


262    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

poetic  and  prose  selections.  Narration.  Discussion 
of  contents  of  lessons  and  memorizing  of  poems. 

Lower  Tertia,  2  hours.  Connected  view  of  most 
important  grammatical  laws.  Home  compositions, 
narrative,  descriptive,  and  imaginative.  Translation 
from  a  foreign  language  every  six  weeks.  Written 
"  content "  exercises  in  class.  Discussion  of  prose 
and  poetic  selections.  (Xorse  and  Germanic  myths, 
sagas;  general  ludfiirr/escMchte,  geography,  natural 
history,  epics,  and  especially  ballads.)  Memorizing 
and  recitatioia  of  poems. 

Uppei'  7'ei'tia,  2  hours.  Written  composition  as 
in  L.  III.  Autobiographies,  individual  experiences, 
sometimes  in  letter  form.  In  general,  a  prominence 
given  to  poetry  rather  than  prose.  Lyrics  and  dra- 
matic poetry  (especially  William  Tell),  with  wider 
inductive  teaching  of  poetry  and  rhetoric.  Memoriz- 
ing and  recitation  of  poems.  Read  Uhland's  Ernst 
von  Schwaben,  Schiller's  AVilliam  Tell,  Ludwig  der 
Baier,  Ballads  from  Schiller  and  Uhland. 

Loiver  Secunda,  3  hours.  Practical  introduction 
to  composition  writing  through  exercises  in  deter- 
mining materials  and  arrangement  in  class.  Seven 
easy  compositions,  especially  comparative  studies  in 
connection  with  critical  exposition.  Translations 
from  foreign  languages.  Written  discussions  to 
complete  what  has  been  read  in  class.  Memorizing 
of  poems.  Read  Schiller's  Marie  Stuart,  Lessing's 
Minna  von  Barnhelm,  Kleist's  Prinz  von  Homburg, 
Goethe's  Hermann  und  Dorothea,  Gutz  von  Berlich- 
ingen.  Poems  from  Goethe,  Schiller,  Uhland,  and 
Lessinff  memorized. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  263 

Upper  Secunda,  3  lioiirs.  Short  compositions  on 
closely  allied  work  (as  history),  7  exercises.  Intro- 
duction to  the  Xibelungenlied,  testing  by  the  origi- 
nal text.  Survey  of  Norse  sagas,  German  mythology, 
epics,  and  lyrics.  Examination  of  different  kinds  of 
poetry.  Memorizing  of  poems.  Discussions  and 
reports  by  pupils  'on  Middle  High  German  poetry  or 
modern  dramas. 

Longer  Prima,  3  hours.  Eeview  life  of  Goethe. 
Eecent  period  of  German  literature  since  1805, 
Goethe's  Euphrosyne  ;  Kleist's  life,  in  lectures  ;  Prinz 
Friedrich  von  Homburg ;  Hermann's  Victory ;  Sopho- 
cles's  Philoctetes ;  Lessing's  Laokoon,  concerning 
Philoctetes  ;  Shakespeare's  Hamlet ;  Kiithchen  von 
Heilbronn  ;  Penthesilea  ;  Grillparzer's  Sappho ;  His- 
tory of  literature  from  Luther  to  Lessing :  Minna 
von  Barnhelra,  Emilia  Galotti,  Xathan  der  Weise, 
Miss  Sarah  Sampson,  Laokoon  und  Hamburg.  Drama 
(selected  jDarts).  Keports  in  connection  with  read- 
ings.    Explanation  and  reading  of  lyrics. 

Upper  Friinn,  3  hours.  Eeview  lives  of  Lessing 
and  Goethe.  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit,  books  1-6, 
and  selected  j)arts  from  other  works  of  Goethe.  Iphi- 
genie.  Iphigenie  of  Euripides.  Tasso.  Xatiirliche 
Tochter.  Faust,  first  part.  Goethe's  life  reviewed. 
Hermann  und  Dorothea ;  Egmont ;  Schiller's  criti- 
cism of  Egmont ;  Achilles  ;  Gotz.  Newer  period  of 
German  literature  since  1805.  Kleist's  Prinz  Fried- 
rich  von  Homburg ;  Hermann's  Victory ;  Kathchen 
von  Heilbronn ;  Sappho ;  Ottokar.  Eeview  Sopho- 
cles's  Ajax.  Schiller's  Bride  of  Messina.  Memoriz- 
ing of  didactic  and  lyric  poems. 


2G4    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

A  discussion  of  tlie  iiietliods  of  teachiiifr  (iermun 
will  not  be  entered  upon  here,  and  the  scope  of  the 
course  and  its  distribution  throughout  the  various 
years  can  be  seen  sutliciently  from  the  outline  given 
above.  Granting  that  essentially  the  same  end  is 
accomplished  in  the  secondary-school  course  in  the 
acquisition  of  the  mother  tongue  and  knowledge  of 
national  literature  as  is  accomplished  in  our  own 
schools  through  the  corresponding  years,  I  shall 
direct  my  attention  to  a  single  phase  of  the  work — 
that  is,  to  the  consideration  of  the  amount  of  time 
devoted  to  attaining  the  same  end.  This  seems  to 
me  a  very  important  consideration,  and  one  which 
has  been  almost  entirely  overlooked  by  reformers 
of  our  curricula.  With  all  the  discussion  concern- 
ing the  shortening  of  courses,  enriching  of  courses, 
and  with  all  the  lamentations  concerning  slow  jDrog- 
ress  in  our  schools  no  one,  to  my  knowledge,  lias 
seemed  impressed  with  the  fact  that  an  enormous 
amount  of  time  is  given  in  our  curricula  to  the 
study  of  language — and  often  resulting  in  only  a 
passable  acquaintance,  or  hardly  that,  if  we  are  to 
believe  the  murmurings  that  are  heard  from  most 
of  our  colleges  concerning  the  preparation  of  those 
entering. 

The  following  figures  show  the  amount  of  time 
spent  in  study  of  the  mother  tongue  in  some  of  the 
representative  cities  of  the  United  States  as  com- 
pared with  some  of  the  German  secondary  schools. 
From  the  American  cities  the  entire  amount  of  time 
from  the  entrance  into  school  to  the  end  of  the 
high-school   course    is  given.     The    entire    course, 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  -265 

including  the  tliree  years  in  the  Vorschule,  is  given 
for  Germany,* 

The  following  cities  were  taken  because  the  facts 
concerning  the  division  of  time  were  most  accessible. 
Many  annual  reports  do  not  give  specific  figures, 
but  my  knowledge  of  the  average  schools  through- 
out the  country  leads  me  to  believe  these  are  c^uite 
representative.  The  charts  given  by  Dr.  Harris  in 
liis  German,  American,  and  French  Schools  Com- 
pared f  will  verify  my  assumptions. 

We  thus  see  that  American  schools  devote  about 
twice  as  much  time  to  a  study  of  the  mother  tongue 
as  German  schools  do.     We  must,  of  course,  take 

*  As  before,  the  numbers  given  signify  tlie  hours  given  per 
week  on  the  topic  if  the  whole  course  were  reduced  to  one  year. 

f  Gymnasium 46  liours. 

Ti        .  Real-gymnasium  ...   48      " 

rrussia -;   t^,.  , 

1    Higher  real-school. .   54      " 

[  Real-school 48      " 

Washington.  D.  C.     Elementary  (primary  and  grammar),  60; 

high  school,  16  =  76. 

Chicago,  111.     Primary  and  grammar,  82 ;  high  school.  11  =  93. 

o     •      c  1 T    A,r  n  ■  if  Eng.  course,        15  r=  122 

Springfield,  Mass.     Primary  and   1^  *=  ^ 

-.nr,    ■>■  ^       i"   1   ,     ^    Eng.  Lat.,        12.5  =  119.5 

grammar,  107;  high  school  +     ]    ^,      . 

*"  ^  I  Classical,  7.8  =  114.8 

r,       J    r.     •  1      Tf  1       Tj  •  f  Commerc.  Eng.,  19  =  126 

Grand   Rapids,   Mich.     Pnmarv   I  „ 

,         ^  in"        I  •  i        German  Eng.,     19  =  126 

and      grammnr,      10/  ;      high  J        .       .         "  ' 

,1  1   Scientific,  20  =  127 

schoooi  +  

[  Classical,  11  =  118 

f  Coll.  prep.,  7  =  82 

Utica,  N.  Y.     Primary  and  gram-    I    Eng.  sci.,  10.5=  85.5 

mar,  75 ;  high  school  -f- 1   English,  13  =  88 

•  [  Teachers',  12  =  87 

f  Report  of  Conimissioner  of  Education,  1,  1888-"89,  p.  53. 


206   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

into  consideration  that  German  boys  have  religious 
instruction  two  hours  weekly,  which  contributes  not  a 
little  to  their  mastery  of  the  mother  tongue.  Then, 
in  most  of  the  schools  the  study  of  Latin  grammar 
obviates  to  a  considerable  extent  the  pursuit  of  Ger- 
man grammar.  But  even  the  real-schools  with  no 
classics  in  their  courses  have  much  less  time  than 
our  schools  set  apart  for  the  study  of  the  mother 
tongue.  Why  the  discrepancy  ?  The  school  year  is 
a  little  longer  in  Germany  than  in  this  country,  be- 
ing from  ten  and  a  half  to  eleven  months  in  dura- 
tion, but  this  accounts  for  only  a  small  difference. 
There  are,  to  my  mind,  two  directions  in  which  our 
schools  spend  altogether  too  much  time :  these  are 
spelling  and  formal  grammar.  It  is  true  that  English 
orthography  is  exceedingly  difficult  and  arbitrary. 
But  do  we  not  magnify  the  difficulty  beyond  any 
necessity  in  continually  requiring  children  to  spell 
words  which  they  have  not  made  their  own  ?  If 
children's  requirements  in  spelling  were  limited  to 
their  usable  written  vocabulary,  relatively  more  time 
could  be  given  to  these  difficulties  and  a  greater 
mastery  insured  in  less  time.  German  children  do 
much  more  oral  work  than  ours,  and  of  course  there 
are  no  misspelled  oral  words.  A  great  many  of  the 
difficulties  of  even  English  orthography  may  be  eas- 
ily mastered  when  the  age  of  discrimination  and 
analysis  is  reached.  The  German  orthography  is 
very  simple,  but  when  we  turn  to  a  comparison  of 
grammatical  impediments  the  case  is  reversed.  How- 
ever, our  American  schools  usually  devote  much 
more  time  to  English  grammar,  which  is  one  of  the 


PRESENT  COUESES  OP  STUDY.  267 

simplest  in  all  languages,  than  German  schools  do  to 
their  grammar,  one  of  the  mogt  complex. 

Again,  we  magnify  the  difficulty  by  requiring 
children  to  spend  vast  amounts  of  time  almost  use- 
lessly by  plunging  them  prematurely  into  abstrac- 
tions which  they  do  not  comprehend.  Were  grammar 
reserved  for  its  proper  place  the  whole  of  English 
grammar  necessary  for  any  one  but  a  philologist 
could  be  learned  in  one  year  in  the  high  school. 
One's  native  language  should  be  learned  by  imitation 
and  not  mastered  by  rule.  Xearly  all  of  grammar 
could  be  learned  in  connection  with  a  study  of  the 
language  and  literature,  as  is  done  in  Germany. 
The  codes  of  most  of  the  German  states  make  it  ex- 
plicit that  separate  systematic  instruction  in  gram- 
mar which  deals  with  sentences  devoid  of  connection 
with  each  other  is  to  be  prohibited.  How  many 
bookfuls  of  disconnected  sentences  do  our  children 
analyze  and  parse  !  "  The  teaching  of  German  gram- 
mar as  a  foreign  language  in  German  schools  is  to 
be  discarded,"  says  the  Prussian  order  of  1891.  Cor- 
rect speaking  and  writing  are  to  be  learned  by  habit. 
Then,  too,  they  do  not  spend  much  time  with  for- 
mal rhetoric.  The  time  in  the  higher  classes  is  de- 
voted to  literature.  Upon  the  average  high-school 
pupil  formal  rhetoric  has  little  more  effect  than  to 
create  distaste  for  literature  and  to  crush  out  all 
spontaneity  of  expression.  Ehetoric  has  a  place,  but 
not  in  the  high  school.  In  the  German  schools  style 
and  arrangement  of  composition  are  by  no  means 
overlooked,  but  the  method  is  largely  what  may  be 
called  the  imitative  method.  A  jDupil  is  never  given 
19 


208   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

a  composition  upon  matter  with  which  he  is  not  per- 
fectly familiar.  In  the  lower  classes  composition 
topics  are  taken  from  the  reading  books  or  from 
subjects  such  as  Naiurkunde,  and  in  the  higher 
from  the  literary  selections.  In  the  lower  classes  the 
teacher  assists  in  the  analysis  of  the  theme ;  teacher 
and  pupils  build  up  the  composition  orally;  it  is 
then  written  on  the  blackboard,  and  finally  in  note 
books  and  corrected.  The  fundamental  presuj)posi- 
tion  of  this  method  is  the  inability  of  young  2)upils 
to  compose  and  think  out  a  series  of  ideas  without 
considerable  assistance.  They  believe,  also,  that  style 
should  be  a  matter  for  the  eye  and  the  ear  to  decide, 
and  not  for  the  eye  alone.  In  the  higher  classes  the 
themes  for  composition  are  usually  selected  from 
German  literature.  Much  attention  is  given  to  the 
arrangement  of  thoughts.  They  even  undoubtedly 
sacrifice  originality  of  thought  to  logical  arrange- 
ment. Although  they  have  learned  how  to  arrange 
any  written  theme,  the  results  sometimes  evidence 
stiffness  and  awkwardness  rather  than  spontaneity. 

But  on  the  whole  we  may  credit  them  with  having 
gained  the  mastery  of  expressing  thoughts  correctly, 
although  fluency  of  expression  is  less  a  characteristic 
of  German  than  of  American  pupils.  They  have  also 
gained  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  considerable  of 
the  choicest  national  literature,  both  prose  and  verse. 
The  Prussian  Lehrplan  (1891)  claims  that  "  instruc- 
tion in  German,  together  with  religion  and  history,  is 
the  most  significant  part  ethically  of  the  organization 
of  the  higher  schools."  In  other  places  it  is  stated 
to  be,  next  to  religion,  the  most  valuable  as  a  train- 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  269 

ing  for  the  character  and  the  intellect.  Undoubted- 
ly the  national  literature  is  most  potent  in  preserv- 
ing the  intense  national  pride  and  patriotism  so 
characteristic  of  Germans.  The  foundation  for  its 
appreciation  is  laid  in  the  schools.  By  the  substitu- 
tion of  those  things  which  are  most  vital  and  inspir- 
ing in  our  language — the  literature  and  language 
themselves — in  place  of  the  uninteresting,  and  to 
children  meaningless  formal  aspects,  we  may  accom- 
plish two  things  :  First,  much  precious  time  can  be 
saved ;  and,  second,  the  spiritual  lives  of  youth  will 
be  vitalized  and  quickened  by  the  rich  stores  which 
the  world's  masters  have  treasured  up  for  us. 

9.    FlXAL   EXAMINATIOXS. 

The  purpose  of  the  examination,  as  published  in 
the  Lehrplane  und  Lehraufgaben,  1892,  is  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  candidate  has  successfully  com- 
pleted the  work  in  Upper  Prima.  Usually  pupils 
are  not  allowed  to  take  the  examination  until  they 
have  been  at  least  half  a  year  in  the  highest  class. 
The  general  scope  of  attainments  required  in  each 
subject  is  given  below  : 

1.  Religion.  Contents  and  connection  of  Scrip- 
tures, the  fundamental  princijDles  of  his  Church  con- 
fession, and  chief  epochs  of  Church  history. 

2.  German.  A  composition  within  the  candidate's 
ability,  showing  independent  conclusions  in  orderly 
arrangement,  and  free  from  grammatical  or  compo- 
sitional errors.  In  oral  language  there  must  be  ex- 
hibited clear,  correct,  ready,  and  connected  use  of  the 
mother  tongue ;  a  familiarity  with  the  most  impor- 


270    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

tant  sections  of  history,  national  poetry,  and  master- 
pieces of  German  literature. 

3.  Latin.  Translation  of  the  simpler  portions  of 
Cicero's  Orations,  Sallust,  Livy,  Virgil's  ^Eueid, 
Epistles  and  Odes  of  Horace ;  usual  laws  of  versifi- 
cation. The  written  work  must  be  free  from  errors 
which  show  great  grammatical  uncertainty, 

4.  Greek.  Ability  to  translate  Homer,  Xenophon, 
easier  parts  of  Demosthenes,  and  Plato. 

6.  French.  Sure  understanding  and  fluent  trans- 
lation of  simpler  authors ;  exercise  in  oral  and 
written  use  of  the  language. 

6.  History  and  geography.  Knowledge  of  the 
epoch-making  events  of  the  world's  history,  espe- 
cially of  German  and  Prussian  history,  in  connection 
with  their  causes  and  effects  and  exact  location  in 
time  and  place.  Fundamentals  of  mathematical  ge- 
ography ;  important  physical  relations  and  political 
divisions  of  the  earth,  especially  middle  Europe. 
However,  the  examination  covers  only  German  and 
Prussian  history,  and  takes  up  no  portion  not  passed 
over  in  Prima. 

Mathematics.  Algebra  and  arithmetic  through 
the  binomial  theorem,  with  positive,  integral  expo- 
nents, and  quadratic  equations.  Clear,  connected, 
and  well-ordered  knowledge  of  geometry  and  plane 
trigonometry,  with  ability  to  apply  in  solution  of 
simple  exercise.     (Calculus  frequently  included.) 

Physics.  Clear  knowledge  of  the  laws  of  statics, 
and  of  motion,  heat,  electricity,  magnetism,  light, 
and  sound. 

English  (if  taken).     Readiness  in  reading ;  some 


PRESENT  COURSES  OP  STUDY.  271 

exercise  in  translation  of  easy  prose ;  most  important 
grammatical  rules  reasonably  well  learned. 

Hebrew  (if  taken).  Fluent  reading,  acquaint- 
ance with  grammatical  forms,  and  ability  to  trans- 
late simpler  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  into 
German. 

The  final  examination  is  to  be  passed  before  a 
commission,  consisting  of  the  commissioner  of  the 
school  board,  the  gymnasial  director,  and  the  teacher 
under  whom  the  particular  subject  is  taken.  The 
written  examination  in  Prussia  consists  of:  (1)  A 
German  composition  (five  hours)  ;  (3)  a  translation 
from  German  into  Latin  (two  hours) ;  (3)  a  transla- 
tion from  French  into  German  (three  hours) ;  (4)  a 
translation  from  Greek  into  German  (three  hours) ; 
(5)  mathematics,  consisting  of  an  exercise  from  each 
of  algebra,  trigonometry,  planimetry,  and  stereome- 
try;  (6)  translations  from  Hebrew  into  German,  and 
from  English  into  German  (two -hours  each).  These 
are  optional,  except  that  the  latter  is  necessary  for 
future  theological  students.  The  examination  ques- 
tions are  prepared  by  the  teacher  of  the  respective 
subjects,  but  to  prevent  either  any  possible  leniency 
or  too  great  difiiculties  he  must  prepare  three  sets 
of  questions,  which  he  submits  to  the  director  and 
the  commissioner,  who  select  one  of  the  three  sets 
for  the  examination.  The  law  cautions  against  mak- 
ing the  examination  of  greater  difficulty  than  the 
pupils  have  been  prepared  for  by  their  work,  and 
also,  on  the  other  hand,  stipulates  that  the  questions 
must  not  be  those  recently  given,  and  thus  obviate 
the  necessity  of  careful  thought.     The  board  may 


272    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

substitute  questions  of  their  own  choosing  in  place 
of  those  submitted  by  the  teacher. 

The  time  for  the  mathematical  exercise,  which 
must  be  completed  in  five  forenoon  hours,  may  be 
divided  into  two  equal  periods,  provided  that  only 
half  of  the  examination  is  given  at  each  of  the  sit- 
tings. For  all  other  examinations  no  pauses  are 
allowed  in  the  work.  These  seem  to  be  especially 
long  examination  periods,  notably  the  one  in  Ger- 
man composition.  It  is  customary  to  write  the  com- 
position twice,  the  first  time  writing  it  with  refer- 
ence to  the  content,  the  second  time  devoting 
especial  attention  to  style  and  to  handwriting  as 
well  as  to  making  corrections.  This  all  comes  in 
the  allotted  five  hours,  Avhich  may  at  times  be  ex- 
tended about  half  an  hour. 

All  helps  are,  of  course,  excluded  in  the  examina- 
tion. In  the  case  of  translations  from  Greek,  He- 
brew, and  French  into  German  a  dictionary  of  those 
languages  is  permitted ;  also  a  table  of  logarithms 
for  the  mathematical  exercises.  Any  attempt  at 
cheating  deprives  the  candidate  from  further  par- 
ticipation in  the  examination,  and  he  may  have  only 
one  more  trial  at  a  later  date,  or  he  may  be  excluded 
forever ;  this  latter  punishment  must,  however,  be 
assented  to  by  the  Cultus  Minister. 

The  examination  papers  are  first  looked  over  by 
the  teacher  having  charge  of  the  subject,  who  marks 
the  papers  and  gives  his  estimate,  not  in  percent 
values  as  is  usual  in  the  United  States,  but  with 
the  words  selir  gut,  gut,  genvgend,  niclit  genugcnd 
("  very  good,  good,  sufficient,  not  sufficient  ").    Along 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  273 

with  the  estimates  of  the  written  work  the  teacher 
is  to  place  the  estimate  of  the  class  work,  but  in  no 
case  may  class  work  influence  the  estimates  of  the 
written  work.  AVhen  the  teacher  is  through  with 
the  papers  he  sends  them  to  the  director,  who  in  con- 
ference with  the  other  members  of  the  examining 
commission  determine  who  may  take  the  oral  exami- 
ination,  who  are  to  be  excluded  from  it,  or  who  ex- 
empted from  it  because  of  especially  good  work. 
For  those  who  pass  this  Avritten  examination  success- 
fully an  oral  examination  is  yet  in  store.  Pupils 
who  have  secured  the  mark  fjenilgend  in  all  the  writ- 
ten tests,  and  whose  behaviour  through  the  course 
has  been  faultless,  are  freed  from  the  oral  examina- 
tion. Others  who  have  secured  the  mark  genvgend 
in  a  certain  number  of  branches  may  be  freed  from 
being  orally  examined  on  those. 

The  oral  examinations  are  conducted  by  the 
class  teacher  in  the  presence  of  the  examination 
commission  {Prilfungs  Kommission),  and  all  the 
teachers  of  the  school,  and  frequently  the  public,  are 
invited.  Sometimes  the  commission  give  the  ques- 
tions, and  in  all  cases  they  determine  the  subjects 
for  examination.  The  pupils  are  examined  in  groups 
of  about  ten  each  day.  In  Latin  and  Greek  the  ex- 
amination consists  of  translations,  together  with  oc- 
casional related  questions  on  metre,  grammar,  myth- 
ological allusions,  and  antiquities.  The  selections  are 
to  be  made  from  the  work  read  or  prepared  in  Prima. 
Prose  selections  must  be  those  which  have  not  been 
read  before,  while  poetry  may  have  been  read, 
though  not  in  the  last  half  vear  of  the  course.     His- 


274   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

torical  considerations  include  only  Germany,  espe- 
cially the  Prussian  states,  and  are  selected  from  the 
parts  that  have  received  special  treatment  in  Prima. 
Physics  is  not  taken  as  a  special  subject  for  exami- 
nation, but  may  be  treated  of  in  connection  with 
mathematics.  Religious  questions  are  confined  to 
topics  that  have  received  exhaustive  treatment  in 
Prima. 

In  making  the  final  estimates  the  class  markings 
are  to  be  reckoned  in  with  the  others.  When  the 
mark  nicM  genugend  ("  not  sufficient  ")  has  not  been 
given  in  any  obligatory  subject,  the  candidate  is  con- 
sidered to  have  passed.  A  failure  in  one  branch  may 
be  offset  by  very  good  marks  in  another,  in  certain 
cases.  Failures  in  German,  and  in  both  Greek  and 
Latin,  can  not  be  counterbalanced  by  substitutes. 
They  form  the  kernel  of  the  instruction,  and  fail- 
ures in  all  these  moan  nearly  total  failure.  Nicht 
geuilgend  in  one  of  the  classics  may  be  counterbal- 
anced only  by  good  marks  in  the  other  or  by  German 
or  mathematics,  and  a  poor  mark  in  mathematics  is 
only  offset  by  one  of  the  classics  or  German. 

According  to  AVendt,  a  good  deal  of  liberality  is 
extended  toward  candidates  in  the  examination,  the 
stress  being  laid  upon  their  ability  to  think  care- 
fully and  clearly  rather  than  upon  the  mass  of  facts 
they  may  have  accumulated.  He  writes  *  that  "  with 
justice,  more  value  is  placed  in  the  examination  upon 
the  power  of  the  pupils,  and  upon  the  manifestation 
of  their  maturity  of  judgment,  than  upon  the  know- 

*  Rein's  Encyclopiidisches  Handbueh  der  Padagogik,  III, 
p.  159. 


PRESENT  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  275 

ing  facts.  The  recollection  of  former  accomplish- 
ments should  also  be  taken  into  consideration,  as 
well  as  the  not  entirely  just  results  of  the  exami- 
nation, which  may  be  influenced  by  all  sorts  of  acci- 
dental features.  Eepetition  is  at  once  necessary  and 
unavoidable  in  all  school  work,  and  hence  it  is  not 
difficult  to  understand  that  the  entire  examination 
of  the  pupils  should  not  appear  otherwise  than  as 
the  usual  final  exercise,  differing  only  in  so  far  as  it 
is  held  in  the  presence  of  the  Government  Commission, 
and  possibly  other  visitors,  and  consequently  may  re- 
sult in  a  little  greater  tension  on  the  part  of  those 
whose  maturity  is  in  doubt."  I  have  been  informed  by 
teachers  in  the  schools,  also,  that  the  examination  is 
regarded  simply  as  a  usual  lesson,  held,  however,  in 
the  presence  of  visitors.  Surely  these  are  rational 
views  concerning  final  examinations. 

Although  there  are  not  many  important  devia- 
tions from  the  Prussian  plan  in  other  states,  yet  a 
few  variations  may  be  noted.  In  Bavaria  the  final 
written  examination  lasts  four  days  and  is  appor- 
tioned as  follows : 

^  ,   ,       (  7-11  A.  M.     Translation,  German  into  Latin. 
1st  dav  1  o  -  Ti  !•   ■ 

•  (  o-o    p.  M.     Religious  composition. 

2d  day      7-11  a.  m.     German  composition. 

_ ,  ,        I  7-10  A.  M.     Translation,  Greek  into  German. 
3d  day    ^  „   ^  ,  ■r^         i    •    .     r. 

•  t  3-5    p.  M.  ''  French  into  German. 

4th  day     7-11  Mathematics  and  physics. 

The  examination  questions  are  prepared  by  the 
Minister  of  Instruction,  sent  sealed  to  the  examina- 
tion commission,  and  opened  in  the  presence  of  the 
class  at  the  hour  of  examination. 


276   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

In  some  schools  the  marks  during  the  whole  course 
count  as  a  part  of  the  final  standings,  while  in  others 
— Saxony  for  example — only  the  last  year,  or  the  last 
four  semesters,  are  taken  into  account.  Some  schools 
have  several  examinations  yearly  to  determine  the 
averages,  and  for  promotions,  while  others  have  only 
the  written  examination,  and  the  public  examination 
at  the  close  of  the  year  at  Easter. 


CHAPTEE  V. 

SECONDARY    AND    HIGHER   EDUCATION    OF   WOMEN. 

I.  Classification  of  Girls'  Schools. 

There  are  at  present  in  Germany  four  classes  of 
schools  in  which  girls  receive  their  elementary  and 
secondary  education.  Only  a  few  receive  any  higher 
or  university  training.     These  schools  are  : 

(a)  The  Common  Schools  (burgher  schools  or 
people's  schools),  all  public,  and  open  to  girls  and 
boys,  though  they  are  instructed  separately  except  in 
the  lowest  classes. 

{!))  The  Girls'  Intermediate  Schools  {Madchen 
MittelscMUn),  public  and  private,  for  girls  only. 

(c)  The  Girls'  Higher  Schools  {hohere  llddchen- 
scliulen),  public  and  private,  for  girls  only. 

{d)  The  Girls'  Gymnasia  {Madchen  Gymnasia),  so 
far  all  private,  buildings  and  appliances  sometimes 
furnished  by  the  city. 

These  do  not,  of  course,  include  the  many  techni- 
cal schools  for  household  industries,  nor  the  normal 
schools  {Lehrerin  Semindre).  The  last  are  also  con- 
sidered as  technical  schools,  and  are  not  a  part  of 
the  general  system  of  education,  having  for  its  aim 
the  imparting  of  general  information  and  culture. 

277 


278   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

The  first-nfimed  scliools,  being  elementary  schools, 
do  not  fall  within  the  ,8cope  of  this  discussion.  It 
may,  however,  be  said  in  passing  that  the  people's 
schools  do  not  form  the  foundation  upon  which  the 
more  elaborate  secondary  and  higher  education  rests. 

As  was  pointed  out  with  reference  to  secondary 
schools  for  boys,  girls'  high  schools  form  a  system 
by  themselves,  and  are  not  the  middle  frustum  of 
an  educational  pyramid.  Girls  as  well  as  boys  have 
their  education  determined  by  the  surroundings  into 
which  they  are  born.  If  born  under  a  lucky  star 
they  may  receive  the  benefits  of  more  than  the  pro- 
verbial E's ;  if,  however,  they  are  born  of  parents 
who  are  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  they 
stand  a  fair  show  of  following  the  same  occupations.  ■ 

The  prevailing  view  of  the  Germans  places  the 
girls'  intermediate  school  and  the  girls'  higher  schools 
in  the  same  category  as  the  people's  schools.  They 
are  all  classed  as  niedrige  t^cliulen^^  or  elementary 
schools.  The  courses  of  study  in  the  people's  schools 
and  the  intermediate  schools  for  girls  contain  about 
the  same  branches  of  instruction.  The  ordinary 
burgher  school  course  of  eight  years,  however,  sel- 
dom contains  a  foreign  modern  language,  while  the 
higher  burgher  school  courses  and  those  in  the  girls' 
intermediate  schools  usually  do.  The  latter,  at  least, 
seldom  exist  without  offering  instruction  in  one  for- 
eign language. 

The  girls'  intermediate  school  follows  a  some- 
what higher  aim  than  the  burgher  school,  and  of- 

*  See  Zeitschrift  fur  weibliche  Bildung,  1896,  p.  62. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  279 

fers,  besides  the  extra  language  training,  a  general 
preparation  for  some  practical  industrial  or  clerical 
occupation.  They  must  have  at  least  five  classes, 
though  the  number  of  years  in  the  course  is  not  defi- 
nite, and  no  class  may  contain  more  than  fifty  jiu- 
pils.  More  would  detract  from  the  efficiency  of  the 
work,  and  reduce  it  to  the  level  of  the  people's 
school  with  its  sometimes  overcrowded  conditions.* 

Officially  the  girls'  higher  schools  belong  in  the 
same  class  with  the  intermediate  schools ;  but,  how- 
ever, after  earnest  striving  for  recognition  as  second- 
ary institutions  of  learning  like  secondary  schools 
for  boys,  they  have  at  least  received  practical  though 
not  official  recognition  as  such. 

A  distinction  exists  between  the  girls'  higher 
schools  and  the  intermediate  schools.  The  distinc- 
tion was  decided  upon  at  a  conference  held  in  1873, 
and  has  been  operative  ever  since,  especially  in 
Prussia.  From  the  tabulation  of  schools  it  will  be 
seen  that  only  one  class,  the  girls'  higher  schools,  are 
recognised  in  the  states  outside  of  Prussia.  Accord- 
ing to  the  decisions  of  the  conference,  the  fully  de- 
veloped schools  with  ten-year  courses  are  to  be  rec- 
ognised as  girls'  higher  schools.  The  course  must 
include  two  foreign  languages  as  obligatory  subjects, 
and  a  general,  deeper  consideration  of  courses,  such 
as  can  be  given  by  academic  (university)  trained 
teachers. 

The  intermediate  schools  were  to  include  those 
schools  with  eight-year  courses,  and  which  confined 


*  Sec  Zeitschrift  fur  weibliclie  Bildung,  1890,  p.  62 


280   SECONDARY  SCnOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

themselves  to  the  pursuit  of  one  foreign  language. 
The  instruction  in  general  was  to  be  of  a  more  prac- 
tical nature,  fitted  to  the  needs  of  everyday  life  of 
the  citizen  {hilrgerliclien  Lehen).'^ 

A  girls'  higher  school  must  have  at  least  nine 
years  in  its  course  (beginning  with  the  fourth  school 
year),  with  at  least  seven  classes  receiving  instruction. 
Its  aim  is  considered  higher  than  that  of  the  inter- 
mediate school.  Two  modern  foreign  languages  are 
given  instead  of  one,  and  all  technical  training  is 
prohibited.! 

However,  certain  technical  or  industrial  branches 
may  be  elective.  The  schools  are  under  the  Govern- 
ment, and  the  teachers,  as  above  indicated,  must  have 
received  professional  or  university  training.  Theo- 
retically the  course  of  instruction  closes  with  the 
fifteenth  year  of  age,  but  practically  it  frequently 
extends  through  an  additional  year,  even  though 
only  the  nine  grades  of  work  are  attempted. 
^-^he  Minister  of  Instruction,  Brrik>i?se,  in  a  gen- 
eral order.  May  31,  1894,  defined  the  position  occu- 
pied by  the  girls'  schools  of  all  classes,  and  also  made 
imperative  many  points  only  partially  realized  before. 
The  order  relates  to  the  regulations  concerning  build- 
ings, size  of  classes,  ends  to  be  attained,  etc.  It  is 
as  follows :  J 

1.  The  number  of  pupils  shall  not  exceed  forty 
in  any  class. 

3.  The  school  room  must  contain  at  least  0.8 
square  metres  floor  space  for  each  pupil,  and  in  its 

*  Zeitschrift  fiir  weibliche  Bildung,  1894. 

t  Ibid.,  1896,  p.  63,  to  1897,  p.  3.     t  Ibid.,  1894,  p.  322  ef  seq. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN.  281 

entirety  must  contain  at  least  24  square  metres  floor 
space,  and  also  be  sufficiently  high.  Each  room 
must  he  sufficiently  lighted,  provided  with  fresh  air, 
be  protected  against  storms,  and  the  windows  prop- 
erly curtained  to  protect  from  the  sunshine.  The 
light  must  come  from  the  left  side  of  the  pupils' 
desks  and  seats  must  be  suited  to  the  size  of  the 
pupils,  and  so  arranged  that  they  may  work  with- 
out injury  to  their  health.  Hooks  for  garments 
must  be  placed  in  corridors  outside  of  the  class 
rooms. 

3.  Schools  having  seven  or  more  grades  must 
have  suitable  separate  rooms  for  drawing,  singing, 
and  gymnastics ;  also,  a  separate  room  must  be  jDro- 
vided  for  the  use  of  teachers  during  free  periods  and 
between  recitations. 

4.  Every  school  must  have  a  sufficiently  large 
garden,  courtyard,  or  other  place  where  pupils  may 
move  about  freely  during  pauses  between  classes. 

5.  To  every  school  room  belong  two  tables,  one 
teacher's  chair,  and  one  or  more  cupboards  for  pre- 
serving books,  handwork,  etc. 

6.  Every  school  must  possess  a  carefully  selected 
library  for  the  use  of  pupils,  which  is  to  be  under 
the  oversight  and  management  of  the  teachers. 

7.  For  instructional  purposes  there  are  necessary : 

(a)  At  least  one  copy  of  each  book  used  in  school. 

(b)  At  least  one  globe. 

{<•)  For  the  instructional  exercises  of  several 
classes,  the  corresponding  ^4 ?is«'/ia?<w«^s  material  (for 
object  lessons),  geographical  wall  maps,  drawing 
models,  cabinet  of  natural  curiosities,  and  apparatus. 


282   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

(d)  The  necessary  reading  and  arithmetical  ma- 
terial for  the  lowest  classes. 

(e)  A  good  piano. 

For  evangelical  schools : 

( /■)  A  sufficient  number  of  Bibles  and  song  books. 

{g)  In  all  classes  a  class  book  called  the  "log- 
book "  is  to  be  kept,  and  it  must  always  be  in  readi- 
ness to  be  inspected.  In  this  book  each  teacher 
must  indicate  exactly  the  material  gone  over  during 
a  recitation,  also  the  lesson  assigned  for  the  next 
recitation. 

Besides  this,  each  teacher  must  have  a  list  of  his 
pupils,  which  must  indicate  any  lessons  assigned  to 
individuals  ;  also  a  school  day-book,  in  which  the  cases 
of  negligence  and  correction  or  punishment  are 
exactly  recorded.  A  programme  of  exercises  must 
hang  in  every  room,  and  the  plan  of  studies  must  be 
always  at  hand  in  the  class  room. 

The  director  must  keep  a  school  chronicle  and  a 
JSimnmKst^  (genealogical  list),  as  well  as  a  directory 
of  entering  and  leaving. 

(h)  In  the  selection  of  text-books  which  pupils 
must  purchase  care  is  to  be  exercised  to  make  the 
list  as  small  as  possible.  Books  are  to  be  so  selected 
as  to  make  all  dictations,  and  Ansarbeifung  (elab- 
oration) on  the  part  of  the  pujails  unnecessary.  Such 
AuM/i^heiiungen  are  not  to  be  permitted  even  as  vol- 
untary work. 

8.  Each  pupil  receives,  on  entrance  to  the  school 
and  Avhen  passing  to  a  new  grade,  a  list  of  all  books 
and  appliances  which  she  is  obliged  to  purchase. 
Pupils  must  not  be  permitted  to  voluntarily  pur- 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  283 

chase  text-books,  outlines,  song  books,  etc.,  that  are 
not  indicated  on  the  list. 

9.  It  is  desirable,  whenever  possible,  that  pupils 
be  provided  with  two  copies  of  the  various  text-books 
and  other  necessary  books,  so  as  to  obviate  carry- 
ing them  to  and  from  school.  The  school-bag  and 
the  maps  should  be  under  the  teacher's  inspec- 
tion, in  order  to  prevent  overloading  pupils  with 
books,  etc. 

10.  The  highest  number  of  weekly  hours  of  in- 
struction in  the  first  school  year  is  eighteen,  the 
second  twenty,  the  third  twenty-two,  the  fourth 
twenty-eight,  and  for  the  following  years  each  thirty. 
All  subjects  of  instruction  are  obligatory.  To  be 
freed  from  technical  instruction  on  account  of  ill 
health,  a  physician's  certificate  is  necessary. 

11.  In  arranging  the  daily  programme  care  is  to 
be  taken  to  place  those  subjects  requiring  constant 
use  of  the  eyesight  (reading,  writing,  drawing,  geog- 
raphy, industrial  handwork)  in  the  hours  of  clearest 
daylight. 

If  possible,  the  instruction  in  religion  should 
come  first  in  the  morning. 

Studies  requiring  severe  reflection  should  not 
follow  one  another  in  the  daily  programme. 

12.  There  must  be  pauses  of  ten  minutes  after 
each  hour  of  instruction,  except  after  the  second  and 
fourth  hours  of  instruction,  when  there  must  be 
pauses  of  fifteen  minutes.  (The  recitation  periods 
are  thus  from  forty-five  to  fifty  minutes  long.) 

13.  At  least  during  the  fifteen-minutes  pauses 
the  pupils  must  leave  the  class  rooms  to  give  chance 

20 


284   SECONDARY  SCnOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

to  air  the  buildings.     When  the  weather  permits, 
pupils  should  move  about  in  the  open  air. 

14.  The  chief  stress  of  school  work  should  be  laid 
upon  the  class-room  instruction.  Xo  exercises  should 
be  assigned  for  home  work  except  those  that  have 
been  previously  prepared  in  class  in  such  a  way 
that  the  pupils  can  accomplish  them  unaided. 

The  home  work  shall  be,  for  the  lower  grades, 
at  most  one  hour  daily ;  for  the  middle  grades,  at 
most  one  and  a  half  hour  daily ;  for  the  highest 
grades,  at  most  two  hours  daily. 

15.  Xo  home  work  shall  be  assigned  in  the  fore- 
noon to  be  prepared  in  the  afternoon. 

16.  No  work  is  to  be  assigned  for  the  vacations 
— not  even  to  volunteers. 

17.  Material  to  be  memorized  is  to  be  carefully 
selected,  definitely  assigned,  and  as  far  as  possible  to 
be  indicated  in  the  plan  of  studies  for  the  entire 
year. 

18.  Each  teacher  must  indicate  the  maximum 
amount  of  material  in  each  German  composition. 
In  general  it  is  better  to  assign  frequent  exercises 
than  long  ones. 

19.  Extemporaneous  and  home  compositions  are 
permitted  as  exercises,  but  not  to  count  as  examina- 
tions, especially  for  promotion. 

20.  All  written  work  must  be  carefully  corrected 
by  the  pupils  after  suggestions  by  the  teacher.  It 
must  bear  the  date  of  handing  in  and  of  the  correc- 
tions. 

21.  Drawings  and  maps  shall  not  be  given  as 
home  work. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION   OF   WOMEN.  285 

22.  Work  of  any  sort  as  punishment  is  prohibited. 

23.  Hand  industrial  work,  drawing,  and  writing 
exercises  must  not  be  carried  on  simultaneously  with 
exercises  in  foreign  languages  or  lectures  in  the 
same  room. 

24.  Review  of  previously  considered  work  must 
take  place  daily,  so  that  special  reviews  of  entire 
sections  of  work  will  be  unnecessary. 

25.  Should  a  pupil  necessarily  be  prohibited  from 
promotion,  the  parents  must  be  first  notified.  Dur- 
ing the  period  the  pupil  is  held  back  she  must  be 
both  busy  and  under  guidance. 

26.  Parents  are  to  receive  at  least  half  yearly  a 
certificate  indicating  their  children's  conduct,  indus- 
try, and  accomplishments  in  the  individual  branches. 

27.  Public  examinations  are  prohibited. 

2.  CouKSES  OF  Study  in  Girls'  Schools. 

The  following  course  of  study  is  fairly  represent- 
ative of  the  courses  usually  pursued  in  the  girls' 
higher  schools.  It  is  the  course  as  pursued  in  the 
Iwhere  MadcltenscJinJe  in  Leipzig,  and  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  general  plan  for  Saxony  which  has 
been  operative  ever  since  1878.  The  school  is  a  very 
large  one,  employing  twenty-two  teachers,  five  of 
whom  are  women,  and  having,  during  1896-'97,  five 
hundred  and  thirty  five  pupils. 

Like  most  of  the  higher  schools  for  girls,  it  has 
ten  classes  (grades),  the  first  three  of  which  take  the 
place  of  the  corresponding  years  in  the  people's 
schools.  The  teachers  prefer  to  have  the  pupils 
enter  this  school  for  their  first  instruction,  as  the 


2SG   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

course  is  apt  to  be  less  thoroughly  carried  out  in  the 
people's  schools,  and  frequently  when  pupils  enter 
the  advanced  classes  from  the  latter  they  are  obliged 
to  repeat  some  of  the  work  already  gone  over,  which 
means  a  loss  of  time  on  the  part  of  the  pupils. 

Programme  of  Study  hi  Leipzig  Girls'  Higher  School. 


X       IX     VIII      VII       VI         V        IV       III         II 


Religion 3        2        23        3        3        3        2        2        2 

German 8886444444 


French. 

English 

History 

Geography 

Natural  science. 


4        5  4  5  5 

....  3  4  4  4 

2        2  2  2  2  2 

1112  2  2  2  2 

112        2  2  2  2  2 


Mathematics 4444        3       32222 

Writing 4        4        4        3        2        1       

Drawing 2        2        2        2        2        2 

Singing 2222        1        1        1 

Gymnastics 2       2       2       2       2       2       2       2 

Needlework 2       2       2       2       2       2       2       2       2 


18      22      24      28      30      30      30      30      30      30 


272 


Note. — Class  X  is  the  lowest  class,  and  Class  I  the  highest. 

Class  X.  Eeligion,  2  hours.  Sixteen  stories  from 
the  Old  and  the  Isew  Testaments.  Proverbs,  prayers, 
and  songs  memorized. 

German,  12  hours,  {a)  Anscliannngfi  (observa- 
tional) instruction.  Two  half  hours  weekly  conver- 
sation exercises  from  the  following  Anschauung 
groups :  school  and  house  ;  garden  and  meadow ; 
field  and  forest ;  land  life ;  happy  hours ;  verses 
from  Gull,  Hey,  Dieffenbach,  Reinick,  and  others 
memorized. 

{h)  Reading  and  writing,  use  first  reading  book. 
In  the  last  half  of  the  year  the  letters  arranged  in  the 
writing  exercise  in  a  methodical  order  for  the  pur- 
pose of  bringing  out  beauty  of  form.     The  simplest 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  287 

orthographical  rules  given,  and  pupils  exercised  on 
examples  illustrating  the  same. 

Arithmetic.  Fundamental  operations  with  num- 
bers from  1  to  20. 

Class  IX.  Eeligion,  2  hours.  Twenty-three  sto- 
ries from  the  Old  Testament  and  twenty-five  from 
the  Xew  Testament  related,  and  suitable  pictures 
studied  in  connection  with  them  ;  also  appropriate 
proverbs  and  songs  memorized. 

German,  8  hours.  Easy  and  well-articulated 
reading,  reading  book.  Memorizing  short  prose  se- 
lections and  poems.  Weekly  exercises  in  copying 
and  dictation  to  insure  good  style.  Elements  of 
theory  of  sounds,  syllables,  and  words.  Short  home 
repetition  exercises  of  the  same. 

Home  Geography  and  History  {Heimatslcunde),  1 
hour.  Dwelling  house.  City  and  village,  and  their 
inhabitants.  Leipzig  and  vicinity  ;  chief  streets  and 
Pldtze,  especially  the  inner  city  according  to  the  city 
maps.     Easiest  fundamental  geographical  concepts. 

Xature  lessons,  1  hour.  In  summer  consider 
plants  in  the  vicinity ;  in  winter,  description  of  ani- 
mals in  the  vicinity. 

Arithmetic,  4  hours.     Numbers  from  4  to  100. 

Writing,  4  hours.  Exercises  in  German  and  Latin 
script. 

Knitting,  2  hours.  First  exercises  in  knitting. 
A  pair  of  stockings  begun. 

Class  VIII.  Eeligion,  2  hours.  Eeview  biblical 
history  studied  in  previous  classes.  Proverbs,  strophes 
from  songs,  the  Ten  Commandments,  without  Lu- 
ther's interpretation. 


288   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTExM  OF  GERMANY. 

German,  8  hours.  Exercises  in  reading,  especially 
for  the  contents  of  the  lessons.  Stories  from  history 
related.  Prose  and  poetic  selections  memorized. 
Four  parts  of  speech  learned.  A  knowledge  of  the 
simple  sentence  and  its  members  learned  in  connec- 
tion with  model  sentences,  and  selections  in  reading. 
Exercises  in  declensions  and  conjugations  through 
sentential  use.  Cultivate  good  style  and  accuracy 
{RecMschreihung)  through  study  of  examples. 
Spelling,  division  of  polysyllabic  words,  copying. 
Change  from  German  to  Latin  script,  and  vice  versa, 
word-building,  and  prepared  dictation  exercises.  A 
weekly  written  grammatical  exercise  or  composition. 

Geography,  1  hour.  Home  geography  and  his- 
tory of  a  wider  extent  than  in  previous  class.  Wall 
map  of  city.     Leading  men  of  the  city. 

IS^atural  history,  1  hour.  Plants,  mammals,  birds. 
Exercises  on  natural  history  from  books,  with  direct 
observation  of  objects  whenever  possible.  Observa- 
tion exercises. 

Arithmetic,  4  hours.  Eeview  numbers  to  100,  fix- 
ing firmly  operations  of  multiplication  and  division. 
Numbers  to  1,000.     Twenty-six  written  exercises. 

Writing,  4  hours.  German  script.  Especial  at- 
tention to  Latin  script  in  words  and  sentences,  using 
materials  from  other  class  instruction.  Exercise  on 
the  figures. 

Gymnastics,  2  hours. 

K^eedlework,  2  hours.  Complete  the  stockings 
begun  in  Class  IX. 

Class  VII.  Religion,  3  hours.  Old  and  New 
Testament   history.      Sixteen  proverbs.     Articles   I 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP   WOMEN.  289 

and  III  of  the  Creed,  without  interpretation.  Five 
hymns. 

German,  6  hours.  Grammar.  Extended  consid- 
eration of  the  simple  sentence.  Twenty  composi- 
tions, thirty-nine  dictation  exercises,  fifteen  declama- 
tions.    Eeading  from  reading  book. 

French,  4  hours.  Thirty-seven  pages  of  reader 
Xo.  I.  Thirty-two  written  exercises.  Dictation  ex- 
ercises, compositions,  conversation,  memorizing  of 
poems  and  songs. 

Geography,  1  hour.     Geography  of  Saxony. 

!tsatural  history,  1  hour.  Consider  various  ani- 
mals and  plants  according  to  Terks's  text-book, 
Part  I. 

Arithmetic,  4  hours.  Eeview  numbers  to  1,000, 
Four  fundamental  operations  with  wdiole  numbers. 
Exercise  book. 

Writing,  3  hours.  Capitals  and  small  letters  in 
German  and  Latin  script.  Groups  of  words  and 
short  sentences.  Foreign  words,  French  vocables. 
Figures. 

Singing  and  gymnastics,  2  hours  each. 

Xeedlework,  2  hours.  Knitting  of  a  pair  of 
stockings. 

Class  VI.  Eeligion,  3  hours.  Biblical  history  of 
Xew  Testament,  Thirty-eight  proverbs  reviewed  and 
learned.  First  and  second  part  of  the  Creed.  Xu- 
merous  hymns  and  songs  reviewed  and  learned. 
Geography  of  Palestine. 

German, 4 hours.  Grammar:  Etymology.  Twen- 
ty-one compositions,  thirty-four  dictation  exercises, 
twelve  declamations.     Readinsf  from  reading  book. 


290    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

French,  4  hours.  Reading  book  Xo.  I.  Thirty- 
six  written  exercises.  Poems  and  prose  selections 
memorized ;  conversation  exercises  in  connection 
with  these. 

History,  2  hours.  Sagas  of  chissical  antiquity. 
German  sagas  (Xibelungen  and  Gudrun).  Middle 
ages  to  time  of  Rudolf  of  Hajisburg. 

Geography,  2  hours.  Saxony  reviewed.  German 
EmjDire.     Brief  survey  of  European  countries. 

Natural  history,  2  hours.  Botany  and  zoology 
according  to  Terks's  text-book.  Part  II.  Herbarium 
prepared  under  direction  of  the  instructor. 

Arithmetic,  3  hours.  Reduction.  The  four  opera- 
tions with  various  kinds  of  integral  numbers.  Time 
computation.     Twenty  written  exercises. 

Drawing,  2  hours.  Perpendicular,  horizontal, 
and  diagonal  lines.  Square,  equiangular  triangle, 
hexagon,  octagon,  circle,  angle. 

Writing,  2  hours.     Continuance  of  previous  work. 

Singing  and  gymnastics,  2  hours  each. 

Needlework,  2  hours.     Exercise  in  sewing. 

Class  V.  Religion,  3  hours.  Review  first  and 
second  parts  of  Creed,  with  more  thorough  considera- 
tion. Review  former  proverbs.  Fifty-three  proverbs 
and  eight  songs  learned.     The  parables  of  Jesus. 

German,  4  hours.  Grammar.  Sentences  and 
punctuation  ;  sentential  analysis.  Reading  of  model 
prose  and  poetry.  Memorize  poems.  Stories  related 
by  pupils.  Thirty-six  dictation  exercises  and  twenty- 
one  compositions. 

French,  5  hours.  Reading  book  No.  II,  lessons  1 
to  24.     Thirty-five  written  exercises. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  291 

History,  2  hours.     From  1492  to  the  present. 

Geography,  2  lioiirs.  Fundamental  concepts  of 
universal  geograph}-.      The  non-European  countries. 

Xatural  history,  2  hours.  Botany  and  zoology 
according  to  text-book  of  Terks,  Part  III.  Continue 
the  herbarium. 

Arithmetic,  3  -hours.  The  four  operations  with 
common  and  decimal  fractions.  Exercise  book  Xo. 
IX.     Twenty  written  exercises. 

Writing,  1  hour.     Mainly  exercise  on  Latin  script. 

Drawing,  2  hours.  Pentagon,  ellipse,  spirals, 
drawing  from  Xature. 

Singing  and  gymnastics,  2  hours  each. 

Xeedlework,  2  hours.  Cutting  and  sewing  a 
girl's  linen  shirt. 

Class  IV.  Eeligion,  3  hours.  Eeview  and  study 
more  thoroughly  the  second  and  third  parts  of 
the  Creed.  Apostolical  history.  Eeview  previously 
learned  proverbs,  learn  fifty-three  additional,  and 
eight  songs. 

German,  4  hours.  Grammar  according  to  Hoff- 
man's theory  of  sentences  and  punctuation.  Model 
prose  read.  Poetry  learned  and  declaimed.  Fifteen 
narrative  and  descriptive  compositions.  Fifteen  dic- 
tation exercises. 

French,  4  hours.  Eeading  book  Xo.  Ill,  lessons 
1-14  (irregular  verbs).  Thirty-five  written  exercises. 
Memorize  prose  and  poetry.     Conversation. 

English,  3  hours.  First  work  in  English.  Eead- 
ing and  grammar.  Oral  and  written  exercises.  Dec- 
lamations.    Thirty-six  written  exercises. 

History,  2  hours.     German  history  to  the  present. 


292    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Geography,  3  hours.  Physical  and  political  ge- 
ography of  Europe,  with  special  attention  to  Ger- 
many. 

Natural  history,  2  hours.  Botany  and  zoology 
according  to  Terks's  text-book,  Part  IV.  Complete 
the  herbarium. 

Drawing,  2  hours.  Draw  pressed  plants ;  proj)er 
art  word  description  and  modelling  of  same.  De- 
signs for  fancy  work.  Copying,  enlarging,  and 
changing  of  more  difficult  ornaments.  Spirals. 
Decoration  with  calyxes,  rosettes,  etc. 

Singing  and  gymnastics,  2  hours  each. 

XeedlcAvork,  2  hours.  Cutting  and  sewing  a 
man's  shirt. 

Class  III.  Eeligion,  2  hours.  Fourth  and  fifth 
parts  of  Creed.  Review  first  and  second  parts. 
Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  Thirty-five  proverbs 
and  four  hymns  learned ;  previous  ones  reviewed. 

German,  4  hours.  Review  and  continue  syntax. 
Most  important  portions  of  jirosody.  Read  standard 
prose  and  poetry,  including  William  Tell.  Declama- 
tion of  selected  poems  (esj)ecially  Schiller's).  Twelve 
compositions,  as  follows  :  1.  Woods  of  Leipzig  in  the 
spring.  2.  Advantages  of  country  life.  3.  An  un- 
lucky summer  journey.  4.  Theseus.  5.  The  duck's 
festival.  6.  The  dragon  of  Rhodes.  7.  Autumn 
and  its  gifts.  8.  Preparation  for  Christmas.  9.  The 
Cranes  of  Ibicus.  10.  Snow.  11.  Tell's  imprison- 
ment and  liberation.  12.  The  Crucifixion  (examina- 
tion composition). 

French,  5  hours.  Reader  No.  Ill,  lessons  13-28. 
Memorize  prose  and  poetical  selections.     Thirty-six 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  293 

■written  exercises.  Dictations,  compositions.  Eead 
Recueil  de  Contes  et  Recits  pour  la  Jeunesse,  Vol.  I. 
Conversation. 

English,  4  hours.  Grammar  :  Etymology.  Eead 
from  Victor  and  Dorr :  1.  At  home.  2.  At  school. 
3.  Farm,  garden,  fields.  4.  Home  life.  5.  England 
and  the  English.  Fairy  tales  and  stories.  Numer- 
ous poems  and  prose  selections  memorized  and  con- 
versation exercises  in  connection  with  them.  Most 
of  the  instruction  given  in  English.  Pictures  used 
to  give  concrete  illustrations.  Thirty-four  written 
exercises  in  connection  with  the  reading  exercises, 
consisting  of  grammatical  exercises,  dictations,  trans- 
lations, compositions. 

History,  2  hours.     Ancient  history. 

Geography,  2  hours.  America.  Brief  survey 
over  Asia,  Africa,  Australia.     Europe  reviewed. 

Natural  history,  2  hours.  Structure  and  life 
processes  of  the  human  body.  Text-book,  Terks's 
Outlines,  §  1-28.  Winter  semester  :  Physics.  Sim- 
plest phenomena  in  the  mechanics  of  heat,  mag- 
netism, electricity. 

Arithmetic,  2  hours.  Proportion,  percentage,  in- 
terest, discount,  alligation.  Mensuration  :  square, 
rectangle,  cube,  prism.     Fifteen  Avi'itten  exercises. 

Drawing,  2  hours.  Drawing  from  models  :  cube, 
cross,  pyramid  in  various  positions.  From  Xature  in 
outline. 

Singing,  1  hour. 

Gymnastics,  2  hours. 

Needlework,  2  hours.  Various  kinds  of  stitching, 
as  double-cross,  box,  and  outline. 


294:    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Class  II.  Ecligion,  2  hours.  Books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Church  history  to  the  time  of  Luther. 
Eeview  the  catechism,  hymns,  and  proverbs. 

German,  4  hours.  German  literature  from  the 
beginning  to  the  time  of  Luther  and  Hans  Sachs. 
Read  model  prose  and  poetry.  Xibelungen  und 
Gudrunlied.  Goethe's  Hermann  und  Dorothea, 
Schiller's  Jungfrau  von  Orleans.  Declamations, 
compositions.  Siegfried  in  AVorms  (in  class).  First 
scene  from  William  Tell  in  narrative  form.  The 
Savage,  a  character  sketch.  The  Burgundian  on  the 
Danube  (in  class).  Gudrun's  Leiden  und  Errettung. 
C*ontents  of  the  prologue  to  the  Jungfrau  von  Orleans. 
Joan  as  a  prophetess  before  the  king  (in  class).  Der 
arme  Heinrich  as  given  by  Ilartmann  von  Aue.  Par- 
zival  bei  Gurnemanz.  Joan  as  a  prisoner  in  the 
tower  (examination  exercise). 

French,  5  hours.  Heading  book  finished.  Other 
prose  and  poetry.  Memorize  poetry  and  prose. 
Thirty-five  written  exercises,  consisting  of  themes, 
impromptus,  dictations,  compositions.  The  instruc- 
tion mainly  in  French. 

English,  4  hours.  Grammar  according  to  Eauch. 
English  repetitional  grammar.  Eead  Burnett's 
Little  Lord  Fauntleroy;  Evving's  Story  of  a  Short 
Life  ;  conversations  and  oral  rejoorts.  Thirty-seven 
written  exercises. 

History,  2  hours.  Medieeval  and  modern  history 
to  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 

■  Geography,  2  hours.  Most  important  portions  of 
mathematical  geography.  Asia,  Africa,  Australia. 
America  and  Europe  reviewed^ 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  295 

Nature  lessons,  2  hours.  Physics  :  Sound,  light, 
heat,  magnetism,  electricity.  Fundamentals  of  me- 
chanics of  solids,  liquids,  and  gases.     Eeviews. 

Arithmetic,  1  hour.  Proportion,  percentage, 
profit  and  loss,  interest,  duties  and  customs,  discount, 
business  calculations.     Twelve  written  exercises. 

Geometry,  1  hour.  Computation  of  rectilinear 
surfaces. 

Drawing,  2  hours.  Technical  exercises  with 
crayon  and  eraser.  Shading  the  cylinder,  fluted  sur- 
faces, sphere,  and  simple  natural  objects. 

Singing  and  gymnastics,  2  hours  each. 

Needlework,  2  hours.  Darning  in  simple  mesh- 
work  and  tulle.     Patching. 

Class  I.  Eeligion,  2  hours.  Books  of  the  New 
Testament  according  to  origin  and  contents.  Church 
history  from  Luther  to  the  present.  The  Sermon  on 
the  Mount.  Eeview  the  catechism,  the  hymns,  and 
songs. 

German,  4  hours.  Modern  German  literature, 
with  special  consideration  of  the  classical  period. 
Read  Lessing's  Minna  von  Barnhelm ;  Schiller's 
Maria  Stuart,  Wallenstein  ;  Goethe's  Iphigenie  ;  Lec- 
ture on  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit ;  Schiller's  and 
Goethe's  poems.  Poems  memorized.  Read  also 
model  prose  and  poetry  from  reader.  Every  week  a 
report  by  the  students  on  some  self-selected  topic. 
Ten  compositions.  Themes  as  follows :  1.  Severe 
punishment  (in  the  case  of  Maria  Stuart).  2.  Short 
exposition  of  the  rules  for  the  French  subjunctive. 

3.  The  sightseer,  a  trip  tlirough  the  Leipzig  Messe. 

4.  A   painting  from  the   city   museum.      5.  What 


29G    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

evidences  of  Minna's  character  are  gained  from  the 
Eiccaut  scene  ?  6.  To  what  extent  can  one  de- 
termine from  the  German  words  of  Riccaut  that  he 
is  French?  7.  My  favourite  occupations.  8.  My 
favourite  reading.  9a.  My  last  hour  in  history.  9b. 
My  last  lesson  in  chemistry  (class  exercise).  10. 
Visit  to  a  court.  11.  Iphigenie's  true  love.  12. 
Three  themes  selected  from  the  Festspiel,  Deutsches 
Frauenleben.  13.  The  importance  of  hills  and  rivers 
in  German  commerce.  14.  What  evidences  of  super- 
stition do  we  find  in  Schiller's  Wallenstein?  15a. 
Too  late  (as  given  in  Tennyson's  Enoch  Arden)  ; 
15Z>.  Saved  (as  in  Moret's  Anarchiste).  Shall  we  call 
Thekla  in  Wallenstein  a  weak  character  ? 

French,  5  hours.  Grammar  in  connection  with 
reading.  Eeading  from  reader;  also  Scribe,  Mon 
Ftoile,  Choix  de  nouvelles  III,  and  Scribe  and  Lc- 
gouve,  La  bataille  de  Dames.  Thirty  written  exer- 
cises, dictations,  translations,  and  compositions. 
Conversation.  Reports  by  the  pupils  on  self-selected 
subjects. 

English,  4  hours.  Grammar.  The  most  im- 
portant chapters  of  English  syntax,  with  special  at- 
tention to  verbs,  infinitives,  participles  and  gerun- 
dives, prepositions  and  conjunctions,  according  to 
Ranch's  Repetitional  Grammar ;  thirty  written  exer- 
cises (translations,  dictations,  compositions,  letters). 
Literature :  Survey  of  the  development  of  English 
literature.  Special  stress  on  Chaucer,  Spenser, 
Shakespeare  (short  history  of  the  English  drama), 
Milton,  Scott,  Byron,  Bulwer,  Tennyson.  Lectures 
and  biographies  are  given  in  English.     Read  Ten- 


HIGHER  EDUCATION   OF  WOMEN.  297 

nyson's  Enoch  Arden.  Poems  from  Gropp  and 
Hausknecht's  collection.  Massey's  In  the  Struggle 
of  Life.  Bulwer's  The  Lady  of  Lyons.  Conversa- 
tion :  Anglicisms.  Phraseology  from  home,  business, 
and  social  life.  Lectures  by  students  in  English  on 
self-selected  themes.  Eecitation  of  English  poems 
and  memorizing  portions  of  ShakesiDcare  and  Ten- 
nyson. 

History,  2  hours.  History  of  Germany  and  the 
other  powers  from  the  Thirty  Years'  War  to  1870, 
giving  special  attention  to  the  Kulturgeschichte  (in- 
stitutional history).     Elements  of  economics. 

Geography,  2  hours.  Mathematical  and  physical 
geography.     Germany. 

Xature  lessons,  2  hours.  Chemistry  and  mineral- 
ogy (text-book). 

Arithmetic,  1  hour.  Discount,  business  arith- 
metic, alligation. 

Geometry,  1  hour.  Important  theorems  of  pla- 
nimetry reviewed ;  cube,  prism,  cylinder,  cone,  and 
sphere. 

Drawing,  2  hours.  Shading  plaster  ornaments  ac- 
cording to  models.  Painting  simple  natural  objects 
in  water  colours. 

Singing  and  gymnastics,  2  hours  each. 

Needlework,  2  hours.  Cutting  and  sewing; 
coarse  and  fine  work.  Machine  sewing.  Embroid- 
ery, fancy  needlework,  and  painting  upon  cloth,  etc. 

As  in  the  other  schools  of  Germany,  in  the  girls' 
schools  the  system  of  departmental  teaching  is  car- 
ried out,  except  in  the  lowest  three  classes,  which 
have  the  same  teacher  during  the  entire  day.     This 


298    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

jolan  is  in  vogue  in  nearly  all  German  schools,  and  it 
has  manifest  advantages  over  the  American  system, 
which  requires  the  same  person  to  be  teacher  of  all 
subjects.  There  are  some  disadvantages,  however, 
from  having  so  many  dilTercnt  teachers,  especially 
from  the  standpoint  of  authority  and  discipline,  but 
the  advantages  probably  outweigh  the  disadvantages. 
When  all  the  teachers  are  thoroughly  trained,  and 
the  supervision  of  the  entire  course  is  thorough,  the 
danger  from  lack  of  balance  and  proper  correlation 
is  not  great. 

3.  DiSTRiBUTioisr  OF  GiELs'  Schools. 

At  the  end  of  this  section  will  be  found  some 
tables  showing  the  distribution  of  girls'  schools 
throughout  the  whole  Empire,  with  the  number  of 
pupils  in  attendance  and  the  number  and  sex  of  the 
teachers  in  charge. 

From  those  tables  and  the  data  here  subjoined, 
we  notice  some  striking  illustrations  of  the  meagre 
efforts  toward  higher  education  of  women  as  com- 
pared with  those  for  men.  Statistics  for  the  entire 
Empire  are  imperfect,  and  hence  Prussian  statistics 
will  in  the  main  be  quoted. 

In  the  people's  schools  of  Prussia,  which  are  free 
to  both  sexes,  we  find  that  in  1891  they  were  attend- 
ed by  2,467,558  boys  and  2,448,918  girls,  or  by  nearly 
as  many  girls  as  boys.  It  must  be  considered,  how- 
ever, that  a  large  number  of  boys,  and  girls  also, 
were  in  the  secondary  schools,  which  begin  with  the 
fourth  year  of  school  life,  and  hence  we  can  not 
estimate  exactly  the  proportion  that  took  advantage 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEN.  299 

of  the  public  elementary  training  offered.     During 

the  same  year,  82,350  girls  received  instruction  in 

the  intermediate  and  higher  girls'  schools,  and  48,920 

boys  received  instruction  in  the  intermediate  schools. 

The  entire  number  of  pupils   receiving   secondary 

instruction  in  Prussia  during  1891  was  distributed 

as  follows : 

Boys. 

Gymnasia,  I'eal-gymnasia,  real-schools,  etc.. . .  13G,000 

Vorschulen 21,000 

Intermediate  schools 48,920 

In  other  private  schools  about 16,000 

Total 221,920 

Girls. 
In  public  intermediate  schools  and  higher. . .     82,350 
In  private  intermediate  schools 65,766 

Total 148,116 

These  figures  indicate  two  facts,  viz. :  (a)  While 
the  numbers  of  boys  and  girls  receiving  elementary 
instruction  in  the  people's  schools  are  nearly  equal, 
the  number  of  boys  receiving  secondary  instruction 
is  somewhere  near  seventy  thousand  in  excess  of  the 
number  of  girls,  (b)  That  only  about  fifty-five  per 
cent  of  girls  have  higher  training  provided  for  them 
in  public  schools,  while  about  forty-five  per  cent  must 
receive  their  secondary  training  in  private  institu- 
tions. Less  than  ten  per  cent  of  all  the  boys  receive 
their  secondary  instruction  in  private  schools.* 

*  To  be  sure,  the  expense  of  attending  a  private  school  is  not 
much  different  from  that  of  attending  a  public  school,  since 
tuition  must  be  paid  in  either  case,  but  the  public  school  grants 
21 


Men. 

Women. 

973 

866 

460 

323 

449 

87 

,073 

34 

300    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Thus  the  higher  education  of  girls  in  Prussia  is 
more  the  cure  of  private  enterprise  than  of  the  state. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  the 
relative  proportion  of  male  and  female  teachers  in 
Prussia,  and  also  the  means  provided  for  their  pro- 
fessional training  apart  from  the  general  training 
received  in  the  lower  schools. 

Public  girls'  higher  schools — regular  teachers. 

Public    intermediate    girls'    schools — regular 

teachers  

Public  schools  above  grade  of  people's  schools 
111  the  various  forms  above  assistant  teachers . 

Total  for  girls'  higher  schools 2,955       1,310 

Public  people's  schools,  regular  teachers  and  as- 
sistants :  men,  G3,237 ;  women,  8,494.  This  shows 
that  about  thirty  per  cent  of  the  teaching  force  in 
all  the  public  secondary  schools  for  girls  are  women, 
while  in  the  public  people's  schools  there  are  only 
about  twelve  per  cent  of  women. 

Turning  to  the  private  schools  for  girls,  we  find 
the  conditions  reversed,  which  would  appear  to  in- 
dicate that  were  the  wishes  of  patrons  consulted 
more,  and  were  the  conditions  not  imposed  by  cen- 
tral authority,  the  number  of  women  teachers,  es- 
pecially in  charge  of  girls'  instruction,  would  be 
much  larger.* 

privileges  with  its  diplomas  that  the  private  schools  are  not 
empowered  to  do. 

*  Miss  Lange  states  (Entwicklung  und  Stand  des  hoheren 
Madchenschulwesen  in  Deutschland,  p.  13)  that  in  the  public 
higher  girls'  schools  from  ninety-one  to  ninety-two  per  cent  of 


HIGHER  EDUCATION   OF   WOMEN.  301 

In  the  six  hundred  and  forty-seven  private  higlier 
girls'  schools  giving  instruction  to  57,943  girls,  there 
were  during  the  same  year,  1891 : 

Men  with  permanent  positions. .      112  i     ^^^ 

-.XT-  vi  <-        -i-        o  ^o;^  -  2)599  regular  teachers. 

Women  with  permanent  positions  2,4o7  ) 

Men  full  assistants 18 

Women  full  assistants 

Men  partial  assistants 

Women  partial  assistants 499  J 

Women  assistants  in  industrial  work.  . .    1,072. 


ron  '  2'^^^  assistants. 


Instead  of  the  small  proportion  of  women  notice- 
able in  the  public  schools,  we  find  about  ninety-five 
per  cent  of  the  regular  teachers  were  women,  while 
those  occupying  the  assistants'  positions  were  about 
seventy-eight  per  cent  men. 

The  state  does  not  seem  to  care  to  increase  the 
number  of  women  teachers  very  rapidly,  if  we  are  to 
Judge  from  the  professional  training  jorovided  for 
them,  as  shown  in  the  following  schedule : 


NORMAL    SCHOOLS. 

Number  yearly 
graduates. 

Costs  to  state. 

Number  positions 
open. 

Men    ...                  3 

3,300 
230 

4,404,879  M. 
503,602  M. 

Women 2 

550 

This  left  three  hundred  and  twenty  of  the  neces- 
sary women  teachers  to  secure  the  requisite  profes- 
sional training  in  some  private  institution.  The 
above  does  not  adequately  represent  the  dispropor- 

all  teachers  are  men,  and  only  eight  or  nine  per  cent  women. 
But  in  the  private  higher  girls'  schools  eighty-seven  per  cent  to 
eighty-eight  per  cent  of  the  teachers  are  women,  and  only  twelve 
to  thirteen  per  cent  are  men. 


302    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERI\rANY. 

tionate  provision  made  for  women  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  the  profession  of  teaching,  since  the  uni- 
versities were  at  that  time  all  closed  to  women, 
though  practically  all  the  men  teachers  in  the  sec- 
ondary schools  received  their  training  there.  More- 
over, the  gymnasial  and  other  certificates  from  the 
boys'  schools  give  permission  to  take  the  examina- 
tions for  teaching,  and  the  institutions  provide  more 
adequate  training  than  any  of  the  girls'  higher 
schools.* 

The  following  table  showing  the  distribution  of 
girls'  higher  schools,  teachers,  and  pupils,  is  com- 
piled from  various  reports  and  tables  given  by  Helene 

Distribution  of  Schools,  Teachers,  and  Pupils. 


Prussia. 
Public  higher  girls'  schools 
Public  girls'  int.  schools 

Public  mixed  int 

Privateliigliei' girls' schools 

Other  higher  girls'  schools. 

Bavaria  (ISOl). 

Public 

Private 

Wilrtemberg  (ISOO). 

Public 

Private 

Baden  (1800-'01). 

Public 

Private 

Hesse. 

Public 

Private 


i 

^ 

c^ 

^ 

1 

s 
i 

o 

"S 

■« 

S 

~ 

^ 

jj 

*« 

B 

§ 

z 

i^ 

S. 

(£ 

s 

iS 

206 

44.788 

973 

866 

295 

58 

93 

28,679 

461 

356 

65 

28 

68 

8,8(13 

647 

57.942 

130 

2,733 

1,690 

499 

291 

7,824 

24  1 
103)' 

13,770 

592 

1,077 

9 

1.8.53 

62 

42 

4 

1,607 

56 

55 

7 

2,548 

47 

49 

23 

6 

2,172 

58 

42 

39 

2,500 

138 

132 

368 
353 

1,073 


*  Zeitschrift  fur  weibliche  Bildung,  1897,  p.  03. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN.  303 

Distribution  of  Schools,  Teachers,  and  Pupils  {continued). 


Mecklenburg. 

Public 

Private 

Saxe-  Weimar- Eisenach. 

Public 

Private 

Oldenburg. 

Public 

Private 

Braunschweig. 

Public 

Private 

Saxe-Me.in.-Hildb. 

Private  (only) 

Saxe-Altenburg. 

Public 

Private 

Saxe-  Coburq-Gotha. 

Public  and  private 

Anhalt. 

Public 

Private 

Schwarzbnrg-  Rudolstadt. 

Public ". 

Private    

Schwarzburg-Sondershau- 
sen. 

Public 

WaldecJc  and  Pyrmont. 

Public 

Reiiss. 

Public  and  private 

Lippe  and  Schaumbui-g-L 

Public  and  private 

Liibeclc. 

Public 

Private 

Bremen. 

Private  (only) 

Hambxn-g. 

Public ." 

Private 

Alsace-Lorra  inc. 

Public 

Private 


4 

.a 

'Z. 

1 

2 

J3 

1 

S 
1 

i 

i. 

;S 

S 

ta 

i 

■3 

B 

r. 

2,052 

27 

30 

48 

4,540 

280 

2 

529 

513 

19 

8 

57a 

29 

32 

G 

8 

1,144 

4S4 

25 

24 
39 

5 

],2'!4 

39 

39 

( 

rro 

43 

59 

0 

311 

21 

19 

o 

203 

12 

(i 

1 

124 

" 

4 

3 

484 

10 

12 

4 

1,200 

34 

25 

g 

102 

9 

10 

2 

125 

9 

4 

2 

19 

" 

~ 

o 

201 

0 

10 

4 

1:32 

14 

12 

3 

440 

15 

8 

6 

430 

1 

349 

4 

8 

10 

1,335 

To 

71 

10 

2,303 

53 

123 

0 

2.344 

23 

80 

53 

0,350 

158 

441 

9 

1,337 

48 

53 

55 

5.941 

134 

502 

304    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

Lange  in  Entwickkmg  unci  Stand  tics  hohercn  Miid- 
chenscliulwesen  in  Deutschland,  It  is  only  approxi- 
mately correct,  as  the  reports  are  from  various  years. 
It  is  incomplete,  since  the  materials  necessary  for 
complete  tabulation  are  not  accessible.  There  are 
so  many  kinds  of  girls'  higher  schools  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  classify  them  in  any  adequate  manner.  Even 
the  Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  hoheren  Schulen 
Deutschlands  fails  to  do  this.  In  all  except  Prussia 
the  regular  teachers  and  assistants  are  enumerated 
in  the  same  column.  A  majority  of  the  male  teach- 
ers are  only  assistants,  while  nearly  all  the  women 
are  regular  teachers. 

4.  Girls'  Gymkasia. 

The  great  desire  of  German  women  to  study  in 
the  universities  has  been  met  by  the  potent  argument 
that  they  had  no  adequate  fitting  schools  to  prepare 
them  for  the  new  character  of  work  which  they  pro- 
posed to  undertake,  even  though  the  university  fac- 
ulties should  freely  grant  them  admission.  Tradi- 
tion and  popular  sentiment  were  too  strong  to  per- 
mit the  people  even  to  entertain  the  idea  that  girls 
might  go  to  the  boys'  gymnasia,  and  receive  the 
same  preparatory  instruction  as  their  brothers.  It 
was  in  response  to  this  pressing  demand  that  the 
Allsemeine  Frauen  Verein  conceived  the  idea  of 
opening  private  Miidchen  gymnasia,  where  young 
women  might  supplement  the  work  of  the  higher 
girls'  schools  by  taking  the  languages,  mathematics, 
and  history,  as  well  as  broadening  in  other  essential 
lines.     With   the   important   cause   championed  by 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEN.  305 

Frtiulein  Helene  Lange,  of  Berlin,  who  pleaded  for  a 
chance  to  experiment,  rather  than  to  settle  the  ques- 
tion summarily  by  logic,  the  women  at  last  succeeded 
in  making  a  beginning. 

A  girls'  gymnasium,  with  Frl.  Lange  as  directress, 
was  first  opened  in  Berlin  in  1894.  Almost  con- 
temporaneously one  was  started  in  Leipzig,  and  since 
that,  one  each  in  Karlsruhe  and  Breslau.  One  is  in 
process  of  organization  in  Bremen,  and  in  several 
other  cities  they  are  contemplated. 

The  Bremen  gymnasium  was  erected  by  the  city 
with  the  intention  of  having  its  graduation  certifi- 
cate recognised  as  a  passport  to  the  university.  It 
was  opened  in  October,  1897,  under  the  leadership 
of  Frl.  Dr.  Plehn.* 

The  one  in  Karlsruhe  received  permission  from 
the  Minister  of  Instruction  to  have  graduates  from 
its  school,  which  was  planned  similar  to  the  upper 
real-schools,  admitted  to  the  study  of  natural  sci- 
ences and  mathematics  in  the  university,  f  Mann- 
heim awaits  the  outcome  of  this  to  determine 
whether  a  girls'  gymnasium  shall  be  erected  there.  J 
Baden  was  reported  about  to  follow  the  example  of 
other  cities,*  and  Weimar  is  considering  the  matter. 
The  girls'  gymnasium  in  Breslau  is  to  be  united  with 
the  present  girls'  higher  school.  The  first  six  years 
of  the  course  are  to  remain  unchanged,  while  during 
the  last  three  years  of  the  present  course  Latin  will 


*  Zeitschrift  fur  weibliche  Bildung,  April,  1897. 

f  Academische  Revue,  January.  1896. 

i  Ibid.,  March,  1897.  *  Ibid.,  June,  1895. 


30G    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

be  taken.  In  addition,  three  years,  corresponding 
to  Upper  Secimda  and  the  two  years  in  Prima  of  the 
boys'  gymnasium,  will  be  maintained.* 

In  1895  the  first  woman  was  admitted  to  the 
"  Eeifepriif ung  "  or  final  gymnasium  examination  in 
Prussia. f  In  189G  the  first  class  finished  the  course 
with  Miss  Lange  in  Berlin.  The  papers  stated  that 
she  was  entirely  successful  ("  Sie  haben  damit  Beweis 
ihrer  Lernfilhigkeit  vollgiitig  erbracht").|  About 
the  same  time  one  woman  took  the  examination  with 
credit  in  Diisseldorf.* 

The  old  prejudice  is  passing  away,  and  women 
from  the  best  families  are  taking  up  in  earnest  defi- 
nite courses  of  study.  The  daughter  of  Dr.  Bosse, 
Minister  of  Instruction,  is  said  to  be  studying  phar- 
macy. The  Countess  Helene  Posadowsky,  daughter 
of  the  State  Secretary,  will  this  year  take  the  scien- 
tific examination  for  teachers.  || 

It  is  probably  only  a  question  of  time  when 
women  will  be  admitted  regularly  to  the  universities 
and  higher  seats  of  learning. 

The  girls'  gymnasium  in  Leipzig  was  organized 
by  the  Allgemeine  deutsche  Frauenverein,  under 
whose  patronage  it  is  conducted  and  managed.  It 
was  opened  at  Easter,  1894,  under  the  leadership  of 
Friiulein  Dr.  K.  Windschied,  daughter  of  the  late 
Professor  Windschied  of  the  law  department  of  the 
University  of  Leipzig.     Dr.  Windschied  was  granted 

*  Zeitschrift  fiir  weibliche  Bildung-,  1896,  p.  597. 
f  Ibid.,  1895,  p.  864.  J  Ibid..  1896,  p.  191. 

«  Ibid.,  1896,  p.  170.  ||  Ibid.,  April,  1897. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  307 

the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy  at  Heidelberg  in 
the  fall  of  1893.* 

The  course  is  one  of  four  years  of  twenty-four 
weekly  hours  of  instruction.  Pupils  may  take  twelve 
hours  weekly  instead,  and  extend  the  time  twice  as 
long.  Students  must  be  at  least  sixteen  years  of 
age,  and  are  admitted  only  by  an  entrance  examina- 
tion. All  admitted  are  under  obligations  to  attend 
at  least  one  full  year.  The  object  of  the  course,  as 
with  the  other  girls'  gymnasia,  is  specifically  to  pre- 
pare young  women  for  entrance  upon  a  course  of 
university  study.  The  subjects  of  instruction  in- 
clude Latin,  Greek,  mathematics,  German,  Prench, 
English,  history,  geography,  and  natural  science. 
The  instruction  is  all  given  in  the  morning  hours, 
from  eight  to  twelve.  The  tuition  is  120  marks  per 
semester,  or  240  marks  yearly. f 

The  first  year  of  its  establishment  there  were  ten 
pupils,  the  oldest  of  whom  was  twenty-five  years  of 
age.  At  the  beginning  of  the  second  year  ten  joined 
the  first  year's  class,  and  two  new  ones,  who  had  pri- 
vately prepared  themselves,  the  second  year's  class. 
The  first  report  of  the  director  stated  that  the 
"  pupils  had  applied  themselves  with  eagerness  and 
industry  to  their  difficult  task,  but  that  the  severe 
exertions  had  had  no  detrimental  influence  upon 
their  health."  This  course,  together  with  what  is  a 
prerequisite   for  admission,  is  about   equivalent   to 


*  Zeitschrift  fiu'  weibliche  Bildung,  1894,  p.  21 ;   Deutsche 
Schulzeitung,  November  33.  1893. 

t  Zeitschrift  fiir  weibliche  Bildung,  1894  p.  27. 


308    SECONDARY  SCHOOl-  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

the  real-gymnasium  courses  for  boys.  The  latter 
contain  considerably  more  higher  mathematics  and 
some  more  science  training.  The  real-gymnasium 
also  has  more  Latin  but  no  Greek.  The  girls'  gym- 
nasium is  not  strictly  comparable  to  any  of  the  ex- 
isting courses  for  boys,  but  its  aims  are  most  closely 
allied  to  the  one  mentioned.  Young  women  may 
enter  the  same  university  faculties.  Below  is  given 
the  detailed  course  of  the  Leipzig  girls'  gymnasium. 
Those  in  other  cities  are  quite  similarly  planned,  so 
that  this  may  be  taken  as  thoroughly  representative 
of  the  work  pursued  and  the  ends  to  be  attained. 

Course  in  the  Girls'  Gymnasium,  Leipzig. 


VI       VII    VIII      Total. 


Latin 5 

Greek 

Mathematics 4 

German 3 

French 3 

English 3 

Geography 1 

History 2 

Natural  science 2 

Phys.,  chem.,  and  min.    . . 
Religion 


19 
13 
16 

8i 

8* 

8i 

4 

8 

2 

G 


23a424aia4      24      2424 


191 


95i 


*  Semesters,  not  years.    I  is  the  first,  VIII  the  last,  semester  of  the 
course. 

T  Total  number  of  weekly  hours  on  year  basis. 


FIKST   YEAR. 


Latin.  Eegular  and  irregular  etymology.  Chief 
rules  of  syntax.  Eead  in  exercise  book.  In  last 
quarter  of  year,  Caesar's  Gallic  War.  Read  text-books, 
parts  usually  taken  by  Sexta  and  Quinta. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION   OF  WOMEN.  309 

Greek  (begins  second  semester).  Regular  ety- 
mological forms  to  the  liquid  verbs.  Translations 
and  readings. 

Mathematics.  Four  fundamental  operations  in 
algebra.  Equations  with  one  unknown  quantity. 
Begin  geometry.  Geometric  quantities  ;  their  origin. 
Straight  lines,  angles,  triangles,  quadrilaterals,  circles. 
Constructions.  Analytical  methods  of  solving  the 
construction  exercises. 

German.  Thorough  consideration  of  elementary 
sounds,  etymology,  and  syntax.  Oral  and  written 
analysis.  Compositions.  Lectures  by  students. 
Theory  of  style  and  structure  of  poetry.  German 
literature  from  earliest  writing  to  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century. 

French.  Review  grammatical  forms.  Exercises 
to  aid  in  fixing  syntactical  rules.  Translations,  dicta- 
tions. Read  some  author.  Literature  from  earliest 
period  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

English.  Review  and  extension  of  etymology 
and  syntax.  Dictation,  translations.  Read  some 
easy  author.  Literature  from  the  beginning  to 
1603. 

History.  Greece.  Roman  history  to  the  year 
476. 

Geography.  Fundamentals  of  mathematical  ge- 
ography. 

l!s  atural  history.  Botany :  Review  systematic 
botany,  and  take  the  most  important  jaarts  of  anat- 
omy and  physiology  of  plants.  Zoology  :  Represen- 
tatives of  the  most  important  classes  of  the  animal 
kingdom. 


310    SECONDARY  SCUOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


SECOND    YEAR. 

Latin.  Complete  the  syntax  of  the  verbs  and 
nouns.  Ecad  Cassar,  and  an  easy  work  of  Cicero.  In 
the  last  part  of  the  year,  introduction  into  prosody. 
Selected  portions  of  Ovid's  Metamorphoses. 

Greek.  Liquid  verbs.  Irregular  verbs.  Syntax 
of  the  noun.  Chief  rules  of  mode  and  tense.  Eead 
Xenoi^hon's  Anabasis  and  Homer's  Odyssey. 

Mathematics.  Proportions.  Equations  of  the 
first  degree  with  several  unknown  quantities.  Pow- 
ers with  positive  and  negative,  integral,  and  frac- 
tional exponents.  Imaginaries  and  complex  num- 
bers. Easy  quadratic  equations  with  one  unknown 
quantity.  Pol^'gonal  surfaces.  Similarity  of  tri- 
angles. Harmonic  points  and  lines.  Constructions. 
Eatios  and  measurement  of  polygons. 

German.  Connected  grammatical  and  oral  use 
of  constructions  in  connection  with  the  reading. 
Compositions.  Dissertations  by  students.  Litera- 
ture from  1300  to  1748. 

French.  Continued  exercises  in  speaking  and 
grammatical  rules  in  connection  with  the  reading  of 
some  author.  Literature  from  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  to  1700. 

English.  Exercises  in  speaking  with  reference 
to  certain  grammatical  rules  in  connection  with  the 
reading  of  some  author.  Connected  conversations. 
Literature  from  1603  to  1750. 

History.     Middle  ages  to  the  year  1517. 

Geography.  European  states.  Xon-European 
geography. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  311 

Xatural  history.  Elementary  concepts  of  chem- 
istry. Most  important  minerals.  General  proper  lies 
of  matter,  magnetism,  frictional  electricity. 

THIKD    YEAR. 

Latin.  Finish  etymology  and  syntax.  Eeview 
most  dilficult  sections  of  tense  and  mode.  Consid- 
eration of  style.  Eead  from  Cicero,  Livy,  Ovid, 
Virgil. 

Greek.  Continue  tense  and  mode.  S3mtax  and 
style  considered  in  connection  with  the  reading.  Read 
Xenophon's  Hellenica  ;  Lysias.  Easy  dialogues  of 
Plato ;  Herodotus ;  Homer's  Odyssfey  and  Iliad. 

Mathematics.  Quadratic  equations  with  one  or 
two  unknown  quantities.  Logarithms.  Arithmetical 
series  of  the  first  order.  Geometric  series.  Calcu- 
lation of  circles.  Plane  trigonometry  and  goniom- 
etry.     Begin  stereometry. 

German.  Prosody.  History  of  German  art. 
Compositions.  Lectures  by  students.  German  lit- 
erature from  1748  to  1832. 

French.  Cofttinue  work  of  the  second  year. 
Literature  from  1700  to  1830.     Eeadings. 

English.  Continue  second  year's  work.  Litera- 
ture from  1750  to  1830.     Readings. 

History.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation 
to  the  death  of  Frederick  I  of  Prussia  (1713). 

Geography.  Most  important  portions  of  physical 
geography.  Thorough  consideration  of  important 
geographical  points  and  questions  of  the  day,  as  the 
Alps,  Mediterranean  Sea,  the  German  colonies,  etc. 

Xatural   science.      Physics,  galvanic   electricity, 


312    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

heat,  meclianics,  most  important  parts  of  the  theory 
of  wave  motion. 

FOURTH    YEAE. 

Latin.  Reviews.  Historical  considerations  (an- 
tiquities, literature,  and  art  history).  Eead  Tacitus 
and  Horace. 

Greek.  Eeview  grammar.  Consider  sjmtax  and 
style  in  connection  with  the  reading.  Eead  Demos- 
thenes, Plato,  Thucydides,  Sophocles,  Homer's  Iliad. 

Mathematics.  Interest  and  rent.  Binomial 
theorem  with  positive  integral  exponents.  Graphic 
representation  of  functions. 

Stereometry  :  Synthetic  consideration  of  sections 
of  the  sphere.  Elements  of  co-ordinates.  (Special 
consideration  of  applications  to  mathematical  geog- 
raphy and  circular  surfaces.)  Methods  of  solving 
geometric  constructions  by  algebraic  analysis.  Ee- 
view and  systematizing  of  mathematics  previously 
considered. 

German.  Eeview  of  previous  work.  Composi- 
tions. Dissertations  by  students.  Elements  of  psy- 
chology and  logic.  German  literature  from  1832  to 
the  present.     Eeadings. 

French.  Translation  of  a  German  author  into 
French.  Systematic  consideration  of  synonyms. 
Style.  Short  dissertations  by  pupils.  Literature 
from  1830  to  the  present.    Eeadings. 

English.  Translation  of  a  German  prose  work 
into  English.  Systematic  consideration  of  synonyms. 
Style.  Short  discourses  by  pupils.  Literature  from 
1830  to  the  present  time. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOME.V.  313 

History.  History  of  the  eighteenth  century ; 
nineteenth  century  to  1870-'71. 

Natural  science.     Physics  :  Acoustics,  optics. 

Eeligion.  Eeview  doctrines  considered  in  pre- 
vious training,  proverbs,  and  hymns.  Biblical  history 
and  geograjihy.  Reading  and  interpretation  of  Xew 
Testament  writings.     Church  history. 

A  course  in  pedagogics  covering  three  years  may 
be  taken  as  elective. 

5.  WoMEjf  IIS"  THE  Universities. 

Notwithstanding  all  the  conservatism  manifested 
in  this  matter  of  women  entering  the  higher  schools 
of  learning  in  Germany,  the  most  pronounced  oppo- 
nents can  scarcely  fail  to  recognise  that  women  will 
most  assuredly  soon — and  it  is  only  a  question  of 
time — have  admission  at  all  the  highest  portals  of 
learning.  Without  much  clamour  or  demonstration, 
yet  with  most  powerful  and  convincing  appeals, 
woman  is  demanding  and  securing  the  right  to  en- 
joy all  the  privileges  to  be  derived  from  acquaintance 
with  the  best  thoughts  of  the  world's  greatest  mas- 
ters. Unquestionably  not  a  decade  of  the  dawning 
twentieth  century  will  have  passed  ere  the  German 
university  lecture  rooms,  traditionally  barred  against 
the  weaker  sex,  v/ill  all  have  swung  wide  their  doors, 
and  coeducation  will  be  a  recognised  feature  of  uni- 
versity life.  The  German  Herren  Studenten,  at  first 
indignant  that  woman  should  dare  set  foot  within 
the  sacred  portals  of  learning,  next  dazed  that  she 
should  be  so  audacious  and  persistent,  will  at  last 
yield  gracefully,  and  will  finally  be  ready  to  pay  to 


314    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

the  new  woman  dl  that  knightly  homage  tliat  tho 
German  student  with  all  his  courtly  formalities  is 
able  to  do.  They  at  first  dubbed  the  women  "  Mi- 
nerva "  or  "  Valkyre,"  but  were  never  openly  dis- 
respectful. 

Most  of  the  German  professors  believe  that  the 
craving  of  women  for  university  training  ought  to 
be  satisfied.  The  older  men  naturally  look  askance 
at  any  such  encroachments  upon  traditional  ways. 
One  says,  "  To  deliver  history  to  women  is  to  declare 
permanent  revolution. "/  There  are  others  who  seem 
to  think  that  the  male  students  will  be  distracted 
from  doing  effective  work.  A  certain  professor  is 
said  to  have  stated  that  "  the  face  of  woman  is,  of 
all  books,  that  which  attracts  most  and  teaches 
least."  Some  of  the  professors  stormed  blusteringly 
when  the  subject  was  first  broached  to  them.  It  is 
reported  that  Professor  von  Treitschke  ordered  the 
University  beadle  to  lead  out  in  a  summary  manner 
a  woman  who  entered  his  lecture-room  without  per- 
mission ;  and  that  Professor  Schmidt  invoked  the  aid 
of  the  Minister  of  Instruction  against  the  Damen- 
invasion  (invasion  of  women).* 

The  new  order  of  things  in  German  universities 
is  commented  upon  by  the  Exefelder  Zeitung,  No- 
vember 10,  189G,  in  the  following  manner  :  f 

"  Still  and  unostentatiously,  yet  full  of  signifi- 
cance for  the  future,  a  new  era  has  this  winter 
broken  in  upon  our  Ehenish  university  (Bonn).     As 

*  Hochschule  Nachrichten,  December,  1895. 

f  See  Zeitschrift  f  iir  weibliche  Bildung,  1896,  p.  589. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION   OP  WOMEN.  315 

in  so  many  other  occupations  of  life,  the  tender  hand 
of  woman  has  knocked  on  the  portals  of  the  temple 
of  sober  science.  Hence  we  observe  this  year  women 
sweeping  by  us  with  long  feathers  and  plumes  as  we 
go  into  the  halls  and  lecture  rooms.  The  circle  of 
studies  which  they  wnll  choose  is  as  incalculable  as 
the  practical  consequences  which  are  to  follow. 
However,  it  is  noAv  safe  to  assert  that  it  will  not  be 
without  a  certain  influence  upon  that  select  portion 
of  the  youthful  students  avIio  sit  at  the  feet  of  the 
docents  upon  the  same  benches  with  the  fair  sex. 
Apart  from  a  certain  knightly  courtliness,  which  is 
peculiar  in  a  remarkable  degree  to  other  nations 
where  coeducation  exists,  doubtless  this  common 
striving  after  higher  education  will  kindle  greater 
eagerness  for  learning,  so  as  not  to  remain  behind 
the  scientific  accomplishments  of  the  women  stu- 
dents. For  that  the  women  will  take  study  serious- 
ly, the  3Ii{sensdhne  (students),  who  at  first  more  or 
less  doubtingly  opposed,  must  very  soon  become 
aware  of." 

^  That  the  women  will  have  soon  won  the  battle  is 
not  a  theory,  but  a  fact,  beginnings  of  which  are 
clearly  discernible.  At  least  one  half  of  all  the  uni- 
versities at  the  present  time  have  admitted  women 
to  the  lecture  rooms  on  conditions  more  or  less  satis- 
factory. These  include  the  largest  and  most  prom- 
inent universities.  It  is  inevitable  that  the  time 
will  come — and  not  long  hence — when  the  remain- 
ing universities  will  admit  women,  and  all  will  grant 
privileges  satisfactory  to  the  fair  aspirants. 

Whether  it  was  a  foreign  woman  or  a  German 
23 


316    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

woman  who  first  stormed  the  castle  of  opposition 
and  succeeded  in  gaining  entrance  to  a  German  uni- 
versity, I  can  not  say.  It  is,  however,  probable  that 
the  example  of  the  achievements  of  their  sisters  in 
America,  England,  Switzerland,  France,  Holland, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  and  even  Eussia  and 
Austria,  fired  the  German  women  with  greater  de- 
termination to  conquer  the  traditional  prejudice 
against  the  higher  education  of  women.  For  several 
years  nunvbers  of  German  women  have  been  resorting 
to  the  Swiss  universities,  where  they  have  been  reg- 
ularly admitted  to  the  same  privileges  and  on  the 
same  conditions  as  men.* 

Many  also  attend  the  Swiss  gymnasia  to  receive 
the  secondary  training  which  has  heretofore  been 
denied  them  at  home.  But  through  the  importu- 
nities of  foreign  women  and  by  their  own  timid  sup- 
plications for  their  rights,  women  have  succeeded 
in  initiating  the  movement  toward  establishing  a 
new  order  of  things.  There  are  now  several  gymna- 
sia where  girls  may  secure  preparatory  training  ne- 
cessary to  university  study,  and,  as  above  mentioned, 
about  one  half  of  the  universities  grant  certain  priv- 
ileges of  instruction,  while  others  (see  below)  have 
surrendered  tradition  completely,  and  grant  admis- 
sion and  the  full  privileges  on  the  same  conditions 
as  to  men. 

But,  as  in  all  European  countries,  conservatism 

*  Basel  has  but  recently  admitted  women,  and  only  as  an 
experiment;  but  in  the  four  principal  universities,  Berne,  Ge- 
neva. Zurich,  and  Neuchatel,  there  is  no  distinction  in  the 
laws  between  men  and  women. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  317 

is  exceedingly  deep-rooted,  and  it  is  only  after  long 
periods  of  struggle  that  they  will  be  able  to  break 
the  bonds  of  tradition  that  have  held  them  so  long. 
It  will  take  long  and  earnest  endeavours  to  bring 
Germany  into  line  with  those  countries  that  have 
such  a  start  in  the  race,* 

The  existing  conditions  with  regard  to  the  ad- 
mission of  women  to  the  universities  is  given  here  in 
detail  for  each  of  the  universities  that  have  admitted 
them  : 

Berlin.  Women  are  admitted  (since  1895)  only 
as  H'urerinnen  (hearers),  and  have  no  academical 
status ;  their  names  do  not  even  appear  in  the  per- 
sonal register;  they  possess  no  CollegienhucJi,^  and 
are  usually  excluded  from  seminars  and  other  special 
work.  They  are  not  eligible  to  the  degrees  granted, 
but  may  only  profit  as  much  as  they  can  by  listening 
to  the  lectures.  However,  all  who  are  admitted  as 
H'0rerin7ie)i  or  Hospitantinnen  must  go  through 
much  formality  to  secure  even  this  small  conces- 
sion. First,  permission  must  be  secured  from  the 
Minister'  cler  geistliclien  Unterrichts^  etc. ;  second, 
the  rector  of  the  university  must  give  his  consent ; 
third,  the  professor  or  decent  must  be  consulted, 

*  At  the  end  of  section  6  is  exhibited  in  brief  comparative 
outlines  the  position  of  women  in  education  in  the  principal 
countries  of  the  world. 

f  A  book  possessed  by  every  matriculated  student,  in  which 
a  record  of  the  lectures,  the  receipt  from  the  questor  and  from 
the  professor  under  whom  the  lectures  are  taken.  For  those 
who  do  not  receive  a  degree  this  is  the  only  evidence  of  work 
taken.  The  book  has  a  greater  traditional  than  real  signifi- 
cance. 


318    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

and  if  he  is  not  an  oj^ponent  of  the  Fraueufrage^ 
final  permission  is  obtained  to  hear  the  respective 
lectnres.  Although  no  CoUrgienhuch  is  granted 
them,  fees  for  lectures  are  not  omitted.  Without 
due  permission  they  are  even  excluded  from  the 
public  lectures.  Those  who  wish  to  be  admitted 
as  hearers  {Huro'innen),  and  not  as  visitors  {Hospi- 
tantinnen),  must  pass  a  preliminary  examination,  no 
matter  what  their  qualifications  are,  and  even  though 
they  possess  a  diploma  from  a  gymnasium.  This 
causes  a  good  deal  of  dissatisfaction,  because  they 
say  that  all  men  from  foreign  countries  who  have 
permission  to  attend  in  their  home  universities  re- 
ceive approval  of  attendance  here.  This,  they  claim, 
ought  not  to  be,  in  view  of  the  variety  of  conditions 
imposed  upon  candidates  for  entrance  to  American 
universities.  Foreigners  even  take  degrees  in  the 
medical  faculty  without  having  received  classical 
preliminary  training,  and  this  of  all  things  is  viewed 
with  disfavour  with  reference  to  German  candidates 
fo;?  the  medical  profession. 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  number  of  women 
in  the  German  universities  by  consulting  the  per- 
sonal Verzeichnisse  (registers)  of  the  several  institu- 
tions, since  their  names  do  not  appear  as  regularly 
matriculated  students;  and  among  the  number  of 
non-matriculated  students  given  there  are  many 
men  (middle-aged  men,  mainly  teachers,  who  have 
not  secured  secondary-school  diplomas).  There  are 
probably  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  to  one.  hun- 
dred and  fifty  women  in  all  the  universities^  'Berlin 
alone  having  sixty  ZuhOrerinnen  in  one  semester. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN.  319 

Eecently  there  have  been  several  in  the  University 
of  Leipzig.  Among  all  the  lectures  I  attended  in 
the  philosophical  faculty,  and  one  in  the  medical 
faculty,  I  do  not  remember  one  which  had  not  from 
one  to  eight  women  among  the  hearers.  The  greatest 
number  are  probably  in  the  psychological  and  philo- 
sophical lecture  rooms,  though  the  philological  lec- 
tures count  several  women  as  students.  The  majority 
of  these  are  Americans,  but  there  are  some  Ger- 
mans, Russians,  Poles,  and  Roumanians.  The  men 
sometimes  look  askance  at  them,  and  exchange 
knowing  looks  among  themselves,  but  the  women 
proceed  unmindfully,  and  act  as  if  they  had  always 
belonged  there  and  been  allowed  there. 

Although  the  subject  of  social  conditions  enters 
largely  into  the  question  of  admitting  women  into 
the  universities  of  Germany,  and  not  a  few  conserv- 
atives combat  them  on  the  grounds  of  mental  in- 
capacity, and  still  others,  alarmists,  upon  the  hypoth- 
esis that  woman's  womanliness  is  endangered  by 
cultivation  of  her  higher  mental  faculties,  yet  the 
Regierungs  Kommission  (government  commission) 
explain  that  the  royal  Government  is  not  against  the 
admission  of  women  to  the  universities ;  the  ques- 
tion, in  their  estimation,  is  not  within  the  province 
of  the  educational  commission  to  dispose  of ;  there 
is  a  present  lack  of  funds  for  any  such  measures, 
and  all  efforts  to  change  the  existing  conditions 
should  be  directed  toward  the  royal  Landesbelwi'den 
(department  of  finance)  for  adjustment.* 

*  Uochschule  Xachrichten,  May,  1896. 


320    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

In  October,  1896,  there  were  fort}'^  women  in  Ber- 
lin University,  all,  with  one  exception,  as  hearers. 
This  one  was  regularly  matriculated  in  the  law  fac- 
ulty. It  is  thought  that  they  will  soon  be  admitted 
to  the  medical,  dental,  and  pharmacy  departments. 
During  the  same  year  one  woman  was  even  admitted 
to  the  lectures  in  the  agricultural  department.  A 
daughter  of  the  Minister  of  Education,  Dr.  Bosse,  is 
taking  the  gymnasial  course  preparatory  to  becoming 
an  apothecary.  Frau  Dr.  Lucie  Messnor,  of  Munich, 
has  given  to  the  managers  of  the  Berlin  gymnasium 
for  women  20,000  marks,  the  interest  of  which  is 
to  serve  as  stipendia  for  women  to  study  in  the 
university.* 

Bonn  admits  women  as  visitors,  in  each  case  re- 
quiring evidence  of  adequate  preparation,  and  per- 
mission from  the  Kultus  Minister,  the  rector  of  the 
university,  and  the  professor  with  whom  the  work  is 
contemplated.  The  first  one  was  admitted  in  the 
autumn  of  1896. f 

Breslau,  in  addition  to  admitting  women  as  hear- 
ers on  the  same  conditions  as  in  Berlin,  has  sprung 
beyond  all  limits  prescribed  by  tradition,  and  has  a 
woman  assistant  in  the  medical  faculty. J  More  than 
that,  she  is  a  foreigner,  an  American,  Dr.  Tillie  Tie- 
gel,  of  Illinois.    Her  work  now  lies  in  the  Dermato- 

*  See  Hochschule  Nachrichten,  August,  October,  1895,  April, 
October,  1896.  February,  March.  1897. 

f  Ibid.,  August,  September.  189G ;  Zcitsehrift  f lir  weiblichc 
Bildung,  1896,  p.  427. 

I  Hochschule  Nachrichten,  March.  1897;  Akadcmische 
Revue,  March,  1897. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEiN".  321 

logical  Institute,  in  the  clinic  for  skin  diseases  and 
diseases  of  women. 

Freiburg  has  had  some  women  students,  and 
in  1895  granted  to  Miss  Blickworth  of  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  in  zoology.  In  the  fac- 
ulty vote  there  was  only  one  dissenting  voice.* 

Gottingen  is  quite  a  favourite  place  for  women, 
especially  foreigners  from  America  and  England. 
In  the  winter  semester,  1895-'96,  there  were  thirty- 
one  women  reported  in  the  various  faculties,  one 
being  in  the  medical  and  the  rest  mainly  in  the 
mathematical,  natural  science,  and  modern  lan- 
guage depariments.  As  early  as  1787  Dorothea 
Schloze  was  granted  the  doctor's  degree,  her  disser- 
tation being  upon  a  mathematical  subject.  In  1874 
two  women  were  honoured  Vv'ith  degrees,  and  after 
that  no  more  until  recently.  In  June,  1895,  Miss 
Grace  Chisholm,  of  London,  carried  away  a  doc- 
tor's diploma,  having  passed  the  examinations,  after 
writing  a  thesis  in  mathematics  on  Gruppentheo- 
retische  Untersuchungen  liber  sphiirische  Trigo- 
nometric, f 

Halle  took  tl>e  lead  in  admitting  women  to  the 
medical  faculty.  They  even  exhibited  some  degree  of 
pride  in  announcing  (November,  1896)  that  three 
graduates  of  the  girls'  gymnasium  in  Berlin,  who  had 
been  denied  entrance  to  the  Berlin  University,  were 
admitted  to  all  courses  of  medical  lectures  in  Halle. 
They  were  even  admitted  to  the  dissecting  rooms 
and  laboratories,  the  very  places  where  the   other 

*  See  Hochschule  Nachrichten,  August,  1895. 
f  Ibid.,  August,  December,  1895. 


322    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

universities  objected  most  to  their  attending.  Ber- 
lin especially  denied  women  admission  to  the  medical 
faculty  and  to  the  anatomical  lectures  and  demon- 
strations,* During  189G-'97  there  were  nine  women 
matriculated  at  Ilalle,  and  the  faculty  even  jiut  them- 
selves on  record  with  the  Breslau  faculty  by  selecting 
Frilulein  M.  Griifin  v.  Linden  as  assistant  in  the 
zoological  institute.! 

Heidelberg  was  the  first  university  to  grant,  in 
recent  times,  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  to  women.  Got- 
tingen  had  granted  the  degree  for  the  last  time  in 
1874  (see  Gottingen).  On  February  18,  1894,  Frilu- 
lein Kathie  Windschied  of  Leipzig,  daughter  of  the 
renowned  professor  of  law  in  the  latter  university, 
was  awarded  the  degree  for  the  successful  comple- 
tion of  a  thesis  and  an  examination  in  modern  lan- 
guages, her  dissertation  being  a  treatise  upon  Early 
English  Pastoral  Poetry. 

In  1895  Frilulein  Mary  Gernet  secured  a  degree 
in  mathematics,  her  inaugural  dissertation  being 
upon  Eeduction  of  Hyperelliptic  Integrals  through 
Kational  Substitution. 

It  was  reported  from  there  in  1895  that,  "  as  in 
other  German  universities  the  question  of  women 
studying  in  the  universities  has  also  found  root 
here.":]:  In  March,  1896,  Misses  Gebsen  and  Mor- 
rill secured  degrees  from  this  university  also. 

Jena  has  recently  swung  into  line,  and  now  all 

*  Hochschule  Nachrichten,    November,   December,    1896 ; 

Akademische  Revue,  December,  189G. 

■f  Ibid. 

i  Hochsclmle  Nachrichten,  August,  1895,  March.  1896. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEN.  323 

courses  of  lectures  and  degrees  are  open  to  women 
on  the  same  conditions  as  to  men.  The  vote,  taken 
in  March,  1897,  passed  the  faculty  without  a  single 
dissenting  voice.* 

The  technical  high  schools  (which  are  to  all  in- 
tents and  purposes  universities)  in  Munich  and  Darm- 
stadt have  also  admitted  women  to  the  lectures. 
The  German  university  at  Vienna  has  begun  to  admit 
women,  and  the  first  ones  received  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Medicine  in  April,  1897.  Berne,  Switzer- 
land, granted  to  eight  women,  in  189G,  the  degree 
in  medicine,  and  to  one  in  philosojshy.f 

6.  CoNTiNUATioisr  Schools  for  Teachers. 
( ForthildungsscMi  len. ) 

In  addition  to  the  concession  to  women  in  the 
matter  of  entrance  to  the  general  courses  of  the  uni- 
versities, work  of  a  professional  nature  has  been 
offered  them  in  several  universities.  This  arose  out 
of  a  growing  demand  made  by  women  upon  the 
educational  ministerium  for  some  means  of  prepar- 
ing themselves  to  occupy  positions  equal  to  men  in 
the  secondary  schools,  especially  in  the  schools  for 
girls,  but  also  in  the  boys'  schools. 

Many  of  these  courses,  following  the  lead  of 
American  universities,  are  summer  school  courses, 

*  Akademische  Revue,  March,  1897 ;  also  Hochschule  Nach- 
richten,  same  date. 

f  Akademische  Monatshofto,  December,  1890 ;  Hochschule 
Nachrichten,  December,  1896,  April,  1897. 


324   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

but  several  universities  are  now  offering  special 
courses  for  women,  which  extend  throughout  the 
entire  university  year.  A  specimen  of  the  latter 
type  of  course  oflcred  at  Guttingen  is  appended 
below. 

Continuation  or  Forthildungs  course  for  women 
teachers  in  Guttingen  as  announced  for  the  year 
1896-'97  :  * 

1.  Eeligion,  G  hours.  («)  S.f  Church  history : 
From  the  Eeformation  to  the  nineteenth  century. 
W.  Church  history  during  the  nineteenth  century. 
{h)  Systems  of  theology  :  S.  Chief  questions  of  dog- 
mas. W.  Fundamental  problems  of  ethics,  (c)  Xew 
Testament  exegesis  :  8.  Eomans  ;  selected  portions 
of  the  epistles  of  Paul.  W.  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
Eead  selected  parts  of  John's  Gospel. 

2.  History  of  philosophy,  2  hours.  S.  Prominent 
followers  of  Platonic  philosophy.  "W.  Aristotle  and 
Kant. 

3.  Pedagogy  to  alternate  with  philosophy;  first 
course  in  1897-98. 

4.  German,  6  hours.  («)  Historical  grammar  : 
S.  Theories  of  sounds  and  inflections  of  Gothic  and 
Old  High  German.  Interpretation  of  Gothic  and 
Old  High  German  texts.  W.  Middle  High  German  : 
Etymology,  readings,  and  consideration  of  literary 
productions.  Prosody,  (b)  Literature :  S.  Litera- 
ture of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
Schiller's   dramatic   delineations   in  seminary.     AY. 

*  Zeitschrift  fiir  weibliche  Bildung,  1896,  p.  156. 
\  "  S."  and  "  W."  mean  summer  semester  and  winter  se- 
mester. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP  WOMEN.  325 

Literature    of    the    nineteenth    century.     Goethe's 
early  poems  in  seminary. 

5.  French,  6  hours,  (a)  Historical  grammar  and 
ancient  literature  :  S.  Fundamentals  of  phonetics 
and  pronunciation  of  French.  Didactic  and  lyric 
poems  of  Old  French  literature  in  connection  with 
reading  and  interpretation  of  Old  French  texts.  W. 
Historical  syntax.  Drama  and  prose  of  Old  French 
literature.  Interpretation  of  Old  French  texts,  (b) 
Modern  French  language  and  literature :  S.  Recent 
literature,  from  1850  to  the  present.  Readings  and 
written  exercises.  Translations.  W.  History  of  lit- 
erature of  the  seventeenth  century.  Readings  and 
written  exercises. 

6.  English,  6  hours,  (a)  Historical  grammar  and 
older  literature  :  S.  Introduction  to  Old  and  Middle 
English.  Interpretation  of  Middle  English  texts. 
W,  Introduction  to  phonetics.  Textual  interpreta- 
tion. Exercises  and  reviews  of  Old  and  Middle  Eng- 
lish, (b)  Theory  of  sound  and  inflections  of  Gothic, 
Old,  and  Middle  High  German.  (This  especially  for 
those  who  do  not  elect  German.)  (r)  Modern  English 
language  and  literature  :  S.  Literature  of  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  W.  Same  continued. 
Prose  readings  and  written  exercises.     Translations. 

7.  History,  8  hours,  (a)  History  of  the  middle 
ages  and  of  modern  times  :  S.  From  the  Westphalian 
Peace  to  the  French  Revolution.  W.  Middle  ages. 
(b)  Historical  exercises.  (c)  Ancient  history :  S. 
Civilization  during  the  time  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
W.  Civilization  of  Oriental  peoples  and  the  Greeks 
to  the  Persian  wars. 


326    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GEEMANt. 

8.  Geography,  4  hours.  To  be  more  definitely 
determined  after  candidates  have  matricuhited. 

9.  Natural  science,  G  to  8  hours,  (a)  Botany : 
S.  Systematic  botany  of  flowering  plants  and  biol- 
ogy of  the  same  {Bliitexbiologie).  Plant  geography. 
W.  Elements  of  general  botany.  Microscopy  of  the 
organs  of  higher  plants,  {h)  Experimental  physics : 
S.  Optics.  W.  Magnetism  and  electricity,  {c)  Ele- 
ments of  chemistry. 

The  students  in  the  Gottingen  course  are  divided 
into  two  classes,  {a)  co-workers  {Ilitarheitermnen) 
and  (b)  listeners  (Anhorende).  The  first  comprises 
all  those  who  have  already  passed  the  state  examina- 
tion for  teachers.  Only  the  first  class  are  permitted 
to  take  the  final  examinations  of  the  course,  which 
is  of  two  years'  duration.  The  course  is  limited  to 
the  subjects  taught  in  the  girls'  higher  schools.  The 
diploma  given  at  the  close  of  the  course  for  its  suc- 
cessful completion  is  not  recognised  as  a  teacher's 
certificate,  nor  has  it  the  value  of  a  degree.  The 
course  is  not  an  end,  but  a  means  to  an  end.  It 
gives  unqualified  admission  to  the  scientific  exami- 
nation for  teachers,  and  the  training  is  of  a  charac- 
ter directly  preparatory  to  the  latter.  Since  1894 
only  have  women  been  allowed  to  take  the  scien- 
tific examination  securing  them  the  rank  of  head 
teachers  {Oberlelirerinnen)  and  the  right  to  become 
directors  of  schools.  In  case  they  have  taken  the 
Gottingen  or  Victoria  Lyceum  course,  only  two 
years'  experience  in  Prussian  schools  is  required ; 
all  others  must  have  had  at  least  five  years  of 
service.     Since  October  1,  1897,  all  women  teachers 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  327 

of  whatever  rank  must  be  at  least  nineteen  years 
of  age. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  year  1897  a  class  of 
twelve  women  successfully  passed  the  examination 
in  the  Gottingen  course.  On  June  29,  1895,*  the 
first  examination  {Oberlehr&riitnen  Frilfung)  of 
women  for  the  position  of  head  teacher  took  place. 
Five  of  the  eight  candidates  were  successful.  Of 
these,  four  had  received  preparation  at  Gottingen 
and  one  in  the  Victoria  Lyceum,  Berlin.  The  three 
who  failed  were  prepared  through  private  instruction. 

The  examination  is  conducted  quite  similarly  to 
that  given  to  men.  The  examination  is  to  be  passed 
before  a  commission  named  by  the  Minister  of  In- 
struction. All  candidates  are  examined  in  two  sub- 
jects, chosen  from  each  of  the  following  groups : 
(«)  Eeligion,  German,  French,  English ;  {b)  history, 
geography,  mathematics,  natural  science.  The  ex- 
amination is  partly  oral  and  partly  written,  the 
written  examination  consisting  of  a  thesis  in  one  of 
the  subjects  selected.  Six  weeks,  with  a  possible  ex- 
tension of  four  weeks,  are  given  for  its  preparation. 
The  oral  examination  is  to  be  passed  before  the 
entire  commission.  Both  subjects  must  be  com- 
pleted within  a  year,  and  in  case  of  failure  they  may 
be  but  once  repeated. f 

This  whole  movement,  including  the  permission 
of  women  to  become  head  teachers  and  directors, 
and  the  securing  of  continuation  courses,  as  well  as 

*  Zeitschrift  fiir  weibliche  Bildung,  1895,  p.  400. 
f  Ibid.,  1894,  p.  341  et  seq. 


328    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

girls'  gymnasia,  owes  much  of  its  success  to  the 
active  efforts  of  Miss  Lange.  She,  of  course,  is  not 
the  sole  cause  of  it  all,  but  it  may  be  said  justly 
that  she  has  been  the  power  that  has  united  the 
scattered  forces  tending  toward  innovation.  The 
nltimate  cause  is  traceable  to  the  general  tide  of 
sentiment  leading  away  from  aristocratic  tendencies 
toward  those  more  democratic.  But,  like  all  true  re- 
formers, she  has  had  the  insight  to  know  when  and 
how  to  act  after  opjiortunity  was  rijie.  She,  with 
four  other  Berlin  women,  petitioned  *  the  Minister 
of  Instruction  in  1893  to  have  women  allowed  a 
greater  share  in  the  instruction  of  girls,  especially  in 
the  middle  and  higher  classes.  They  desired  partic- 
ularly to  have  the  German  and  religious  instruction 
placed  in  the  hands  of  women.  Those  studies  that 
contribute  most  to  shape  the  sentiments  in  morals 
and  religion  they  felt  could  be  best  intrusted  to 
those  of  the  same  sex,  whose  modes  of  thinking 
and  whose  instincts  would  make  them  more  sym- 
pathetic with  the  impulsiveness  and  instability  of 
budding  womanhood.  The  petition  was'  opposed  in 
an  energetic  manner  and  refused,  however,  chiefly 
on  the  ground  of  the  present  lack  of  properly  pre- 
pared teachers.  Since  that,  the  women  have  won  a 
large  part  of  what  they  sought,  and  the  courses  of- 
fered by  the  Victoria  Lyceum  and  the  Guttingen 
University  have  opened  the  way  for  the  initiatory 
supply  of  competent  teachers.     Miss  Lange  and  her 

*  Unsere  Lehrerinnen.  Zeitschrift  f.  w.  Bildung,  1895,  p.  740 
ff.,  article  by  Auguste  Sprengel. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  329 

co-workers  demanded  the  employment  of  more 
women  in  the  schools  upon  moral  and  ethical 
grounds,  believing  that  only  women  should  be  in- 
structors of  girls  in  the  above-named  subjects. 
Moreover,  she  claims  that  throughout  all  periods  of 
a  girl's  life  a  part,  at  least,  of  all  her  instruction 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  women. 

The  girls'  schools  had  not  only  suffered  from  a 
lack  of  female  instructional  force,  but  they  had  been 
obliged  to  employ  the  less  capable  men  teachers. 
Not  being  recognised  officially  as  secondary  schools, 
the  best  prepared  candidates  were  not  required  and, 
of  course,  not  secured.  A  large  majority  of  the 
teachers  were  from  the  normal  schools  instead  of 
from  the  universities — that  is,  their  teachers  were 
on  the  same  plane  with  the  teachers  of  the  people's 
schools.  In  many  respects  they  were  not  so  highly 
regarded.  They  could  not  even  receive  the  title  of 
head  teacher  (Oherlehrer).  Since  September  28, 
189-4,*  however,  they  are  recognised  as  head  teachers 
in  Prussia,  and  may  receive  that  title  as  soon  as  that 
position  in  school  is  reached.  Now,  the  directors,  in- 
structors in  religion,  foreign  languages,  and  ethical 
subjects,  in  so  far  as  these  do  not  come  within  the 
province  of  women,  are  to  be  in  charge  of  men  who 
have  passed  examinations  for  higher  teaching  posi- 
tions. Thus,  there  is  a  distinct  gain  in  the  quality 
of  the  female  teaching  force  to  be  employed  subse- 
quently, although  the  female  sex  has  not  secured  so 
large  a  representation  as  they  desired.     With  their 

*  Centralblatt,  1894,  p.  743. 


330   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

better  preparation   assured,  however,  their   future 
brightens. 

The  Minister  of  Instruction  long  recognised  that 
the  state  hitherto  had  done  too  little  for  girls'  in- 
struction, which  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
higher  ediication  of  boys  is  deemed  necessary  for 
their  entrance  to  higher  state  positions,  while  girls 
are  by  custom  excluded  from  nearly  all  state  posi- 
tions except  teaching.  He  further  recognises  that 
girls'  education  is  important  for  the  state  in  many 
directions.  However,  many.  Dr.  Bosse  included, 
maintain  that  the  interests  of  the  greater  number 
are  not  to  be  overlooked.  Only  a  comparatively  few 
girls  are  to  receive  higher  education  or  to  enter 
technical  pursuits,  while  the  masses  find  their  life 
callings  in  household  pursuits.  Hence  it  is  deemed 
best  to  shape  education  to  the  needs  of  the  many. 

7.  Salaries  of  Women  Teachers. 

Women  receive  much  lower  salaries  than  men. 
However,  there  is  an  effort  being  made  to  equalize 
more  nearly  the  salaries  of  the  two  sexes  for  the 
same  quality  and  amount  of  work.  That  is,  of  course, 
a  difficult  matter  to  adjust,  even  though  it  were  ar- 
ranged so  that  there  should  be  no  discrimination 
against  women  when  they  perform  the  same  amount 
of  work  as  men;  quantities  could  be  estimated  in 
units  of  time  actually  spent  in  instruction,  but  the 
amount  of  work  really  accomplished  is  difficult  to 
estimate.  Still  harder  is  it  to  compare  in  tangible 
form  the  qutility  of  intellectual  accomplishments. 
One   class  of  work   may  be   better  or  poorer  than 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OP   WOMEN.  331 

another,  but  it  is  difficult  to  establish  a  scale  of 
wages  that  shall  represent  equable  compensation 
therefor. 

The  main  arguments  proposed  in  Germany  are 
that  men  have  to  provide  for  the  support  of  families, 
while  women  seldom  have  this  to  think  of.  Against 
this  is  then  urged  that  men  with  families  ought  ac- 
cording to  such  reasoning  to  be  paid  more  for  given 
service  than  bachelors  or  men  without  children. 

It  is  urged  by  opponents  of  the  Emanciimtion 
der  Fraiien  that  the  province  of  women  lies  within 
the  domestic  circle,  and  that  those  who  choose  oc- 
cupations outside  of  household  duties  are  usurping 
the  rightful  callings  of  men.  Those,  at  least,  who 
are  not  driven  by  necessity  to  choose  remunerative 
work  ought  to  leave  the  field  clear  for  men.  A 
woman  whose  family  is  in  moderate  circumstances 
and  whose  health  is  such  that  she  may  look  forward 
to  marriage  ought  not  to  take  away  from  men  the 
means  of  earning  a  livelihood.  Such  women,  they 
urge  from  social  considerations,  ought  to  leave  the 
bread-winning  avenues  free  to  men,  and  to  content 
themselves  with  necessary  preparation  for  wise  man- 
agement of  a  household  and  intelligent  and  judicious 
motherhood.  A  prominent  teacher  in  a  girls'  higher 
school  related  to  the  writer  an  instance  of  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  school  director,  a  man  earning  (5,000  marks 
a  year,  who  entered  the  field  of  teaching,  thereby, 
as  he  considered,  taking  the  bread  away  from  some 
worthy  man  who  needed  the  money  to  bring  uj)  a 
family.  He  considered  it  contrary  to  the  social  in- 
terests of  the  country. 
23 


332    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

From  the  social  standpoint,  also,  there  comes  an 
answer  to  the  above  arguments.  ^Vhatever  may  be  the 
natural  end  to  be  attained  by  every  woman,  which 
is  assumed  to  be  that  of  marriage  and  the  care  of 
a  family,  the  social  conditions  are  now  such  that 
it  is  unattainable.  Statistics  show  that  in  1890  of 
all  women  of  marriageable  age  (twenty-one  to  fifty) 
33.7  per  cent  in  Germany  were  single — that  is,  un- 
married or  widowed,  and  largely  dependent  upon 
themselves  for  the  means  of  support.  In  the  upper 
circles  of  society  marriages  are  less  frequent  than  in 
the  lower.  A  woman  in  the  latter  stratum  can  help 
earn  the  living  for  a  family  by  working  in  factories 
or  in  the  fields.  In  the  upper  classes  no  means  of 
earning  is  possible,  and  hence  fewer  men  marry,  be- 
cause, alone,  some  earn  inadequate  support  for  a  wife 
and  family.  The  proportion  of  single  women  among 
the  upper  classes  is  said  to  be  as  high  as  fifty  per 
cent  of  the  marriageable.*  This  makes  the  question 
one  of  close  connection  with  that  of  pay  of  women 
school  teachers,  since  it  is  from  families  of  the  better 
classes,  who  are  able  to  send  their  girls  to  the  higher 
schools,  and  hence  from  this  stratum  of  society,  that 
the  majority  of  women  teachers  come. 

Saxony  stands  alone  in  placing  women  and  men 
on  the  same  salary  list  in  the  people's  schools.  In 
their  statutes  (6)  they  explained  that  "  Unter  Lehrer 
im  Sinne  dieses  Gesetzes  sind  auch  die  Lehrerinnen 
zu  verstehen."  The  Prussian  law  of  1885  prescribes 
salaries  of  women  equal  to  from  seventy-five  to  eighty 

*  Cf.  Zeitschrift   flir   weibliclie   Bildung.   Frauenberuf  in 
Diakouie  vou  Dr.  C.  Wander:  also  see  Paulsen's  Ethik. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  333 

per  cent  of  those  received  by  men.  According  to 
Frl.  Helene  Lange,*  however,  the  salaries  of  women 
in  the  city  people's  schools  are  69.5  per  cent  of  men's ; 
in  the  girls'  middle  schools,  53.1  per  cent ;  and  in  the 
girls'  higher  schools  about  53.3  per  cent.  The  only 
compensation  for  the  discrepancy  is  offered  in  the 
smaller  number  of  hours  required  of  women.  In 
Berlin  and  Hanover,  however,  where  the  maximum 
salary  of  women  is  300  to  350  marks  per  year  less 
than  that  of  men  of  the  same  training — i.  e.,  semi- 
nary training — there  is  not  to  be  found  a  correspond- 
ing difference  in  hours  of  work.f 

The  question  of  woman's  pay  and  woman's  work 
is  one  which  is  pertinent  in  America  as  well  as  in 
Germany.  There  are  few,  however,  in  America  who 
regard  woman  as  a  usurper  in  the  field  of  teaching. 
So  few  men  care  to  fit  themselves  for  the  work  with 
its  small  compensation  that  the  field  is  practically 
free  to  women  in  all  but  the  higher  ranks.  Although 
there  is  nearly  as  great  disparity  between  men's 
and  women's  wages  in  America  as  in  Germany,  yet 
the  absolute  compensation  awarded  to  women  who 
are  competent  and  thoroughly  trained  is  much  bet- 
ter in  America  than  in  Germany. 

*  Rein's  Encyklopadisches  Handbiich  d.  Padagogik. 

f  Where  the  men  have  received  university  training  and  the 
women  only  seminary  (normal  school),  there  is  justice  in  the 
discrepancy.  Few  women,  however,  could  hope  to  receive  as 
much  as  men  even  though  equal  salaries  were  given  for  equal 
training,  since  the  universities  are  practically  closed  to  women; 
first,  because  the  universities  are  opposed  to  their  entrance,  and, 
second,  because  they  have  no  means  of  preparing  for  the  uni- 
versities. 


334    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Capable  women  can  earn  salaries  in  America  such 
as  are  paid  only  to  men  in  Giermany  wlio  liave  under- 
gone long  courses  of  training  and  served  long  periods 
in  the  teaching  ranks.  Both  women  and  men  are 
much  better  paid  in  America  than  for  equal  service 
in  Germany.  Many,  if  not  most,  Germans  them- 
selves recognise  this  fact.  The  words  of  Frl.  Helena 
Lange  confirm  this  view.* 

Below  are  enumerated  the  salaries  paid  to  women 
in  the  various  grades  of  schools  in  some  of  the  states 
and  a  few  representative  cities.  The  list  is  intended 
to  be  illustrative  rather  than  exhaustive.  The  figures 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  states  show  the 
salary  as  prescribed  by  law.  Many  of  the  cities  have 
permission  to  enact  their  own  regulations  in  this  re- 
gard as  in  others.  Hamburg,  Bremen,  and  Liibeck 
are  free  cities,  and  act  as  independent  states. 

Baden. 


Beginning 
salary. 

After 
3  yrs. 

After       After 
6  yrs.      9  yrs. 

After 
12  yrs. 

Rent. 

Head      teachers,      people's 

l,100t 
800  to  900 

1,200 

1,300     1,400 

1,500 

115-260 

Under     teachers,     people's 
schools 

*  "  Weit  besser  wird  freilich  die  deutsche  Lehrerin,  falls  sie 
wirklich  etwas  versteht,  im  Auslande  bezahlt,  besonders  in 
England  und  Amerika.  Spricht  sie  die  modernen  Fremde- 
sprachen  gelanfig,  hat  sie  tilchtige  Leistungen  in  Malen  und 
Musik  aufzuweisen,  ist  sie  im  Stande.  in  Latein  und  Matheniatik 
zu  unterrichten.  so  kann  sie  bei  freier  Station  ein  Gehalt  bis 
zu  2,700  und  3,000  Mark  beziehen  "  (Rein's  Encyklopadisches 
Handbuch  der  Padagogik,  i,  p.  373). 

f  The  amounts  given  are  in  marks. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION   OF  WOMEN. 


335 


Saxony. 


People's  schools,  40  pupils 
in  class 

Pf()i)le"s  schools,  more 
than  40  pupils 


Be>;inning 
salary. 

After 
6  yrs. 

After 
lOyre. 

After 
15yr». 

After 
20  yrs. 

After 
25  yrs. 

1,000* 
1,000 

1,075 
1,200 

1,150 
1,350 

1,225 
1,500 

1,300 
1,600 

1,375 
1.700 

After 
30  yrs. 


1,450 
1,800 


Hesse. 

People's  schools,  ordiuary  teachers 900-1,200  and  rent. 

People's  schools,  ordinary  teachers,  large  cities 1,200-1,400         " 

Darmstadt  people's  schools,  ordinary  teachers 1,200-1,750         " 

Mainz  people's  schools,  ordiuary  teachers 1,200-1,600         "' 

AVorms  people's  schools,  ordinarj^  teachers 1,200-1,600         " 

Giessen  people's  schools,  ordinary  teachers 1,200-1,600         " 

Bingen  people's  schools,  ordinary  teachers 1,000-1,400         " 

In  girls'  higher  schools 1,400-2,400         " 

MecMenhiirg. 

In  girls'  higher  schools 900-1,500  and  rent. 

In  peoi)le"s  schools 600-1,200         " 

Saxe-  Weimar. 

In  people's  schools 900-1,400  and  rent. 

In  people's  schools  (cities) 1,000-1,400         " 


People's  schools . 


A  Isace-Lorraine. 
.  720-900  Girls' higher  schools. 

Hamburg. 


1,000-1,800 


Ordinary  teachers,  people's 

school's 

Assistant  teachers,  people's 

schools 

Head  teachers,  girls'  higher 

schools 

Ordinary     teachers,     girls' 

higher  schools 


BeprinniDg 

After 

After 

After 

After 

Ealary. 

3  yrs. 

6  yrs. 

8  yrs. 

lOjTS. 

1,200 

1,400 

1,600 

1,800 

2,000 

1,000 

1,900 

2,100 

2,300 

2,500 

2,700 

1,400 

l.GOO 

1,800 

2.000 

Allowed. 


Allowed. 
Allowed. 


Bremen.   . 
Ordinary  teachers,  people's  schools 1,000-1,500  and  rent. 


*  The  amounts  given  are  in  marks. 


33G    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Karlsrnhe. 
Oi'diuary  teachers,  people's  schools 1.500-1,800  and  rent. 

Dresden. 

Ordinary  teachers,  girls'  higher  schools 1,000-2,400  and  rent. 

Assistant  teachers,  girls'  higher  schools 1,400  and  rent. 

Leipzig. 

Ordinary  teachers,  girls'  higher  schools 1.3.50-2,400  and  rent. 

Assistant  teachers,  girls'  higher  schools 1,X'00  and  rent. 

Luheck. 

Beginning  After     After     After     After     After     After     After    After 
s.ilary.      3  yrs.    6  jrs.    9  yrs.    12  yrs.    16  yrs.   18  yrs.  21  yrs.  24 yrs. 

People's  schools,  ordi- 
nary teachers 1,000  1.050   1,100   1,150  1,200  1,250   1^00  1,350  1,400 

Girls'  intermediate  schools,  ordinary  teachers 1,200-1,600 

Note.— See  Rein's  Encyklopadisches  Handbuch  der  Piidagogik,  i, 
article  Besoldung  der  Lehrerin. 

Table  showing  Salaries  of  Women  Teachers  in  Rejwesenta- 
tive  States  and.  Cities. 


East  Prussia 

West  Prussia 

Berlin 

Brandenburg 

Pommern 

Posen 

Schlesien 

Saxon  Prussia 

Schleswig-Holstein 

Hannover 

Westphalia 

Hesse-Nassau 

Kheinland 

Hohenzollern 

Average  for  Prussia : 

(a)  In  cities 

(6)  In  country 

Av.  for  men  in  same  positions. 
(o)  Cities 

(b)  Country 


people's 

SCHOOLS. 

Entire 

Average 

yearly 
salary. 

including 
perquisites 

670* 

936 

715 

1.010 

1.22'.» 

1..5.38 

801 

1,089 

669 

992 

727 

1.026 

916 

1.160 

788 

l.O-oO 

7S2 

967 

732 

981 

899 

1.146 

903 

1.197 

907 

1,101 

766 

934 

979 

1,261  ) 

793 

1,171  ] 

1,.359 

1,814  1 

911 

1,271  f 

Average 

salary 

higher 
schools. 


Average 


frirls' 
intern^edi 


1,125 
1.256 
2,001 
1,313 
1.275 
1.253 
1,373 
1.195 
1.304 
1.202 
1.396 
3.782 
1,637 


1,433 
2,854 


1.057 
1,002 

1.223 
1,1.59 
1.193 
1,.395 
1.126 
1,152 
1,230 
1.175 
1,.501 
1,590 


1,257 
2,364 


Averagft 
income 
inixed 
intermedi- 
ate 
schools. 


1,285 
1.106 
1.3.50 
1.275 
979 

i'.OJS 
1.200 
1,850 


1,131 
1,991 


*  The  amounts  given  are  in  marks. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEN. 


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338    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


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HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  339 


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840    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


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HJGHER  EDUCATION  OF   WOMEN.  341 

8.  The  Higher  Education  of  Women 
considered. 

That  the  German  views  concerning  the  education 
of  women  differ  very  radically  from  those  of  most 
Americans  is  well  known.  In  Germany  it  has  been 
held  by  the  majority  that  woman's  activities  ought 
to  be  confined  to  household  arts  and  the  duties  con- 
nected with  rearing  a  family.  Besides  this  province, 
when  circumstances  are  straitened,  she  ought  to  be 
the  helper  of  her  husband  in  agricultural  or  other 
industrial  pursuits.  This  is  not  a  theory  alone,  but 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  women  daily  perform  heavy 
manual  labour  such  as  falls  only  to  men  in  America, 
thus  following  the  path  which  custom  and  popular 
opinion  has  marked  out  for  them.  By  the  multi- 
tudes women  are  not  considered  capable  of  receiving 
higher  education  of  the  same  quality  and  amount  as 
men.  Some  who  hold  no  doubt  of  her  educability, 
however,  believe  that  she  would  be  transgressing  her 
naturally  foreordained  functions  by  receiving  higher 
education. //Helene  Lange  says:*  "We  frequently 
meet  in  foreign  and  home  journals  the  statement 
that  the  German  is  the  only  and  the  last  great  nation 
of  culture  which  leaves  its  women  under  the  oppres- 
sion of  the  Middle  Age  fetters,  keeping  closed  against 
them  the  institutions  of  higher  learning — that  is, 
the  requisites  of  every  higher  professional  activity — 
and  thus  effectually  preventing  the  solution  of  the 

*  Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe,  p.  1.     Translated 
by  L.  R.  Klemm. 


342   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

burning  question,  which    is  only  possible   through 
intellectual  emancipation." 

Thus  within  the  last  decade  or  two  a  few  cham- 
2:)ious  of  the  "  woman's  cause  "  have  appeared  in  Ger- 
many who  insist  that  all  avenues  of  intellectual  pur- 
suits should  be  open  without  restriction  to  women 
who  are  inclined  to  enter  them.  Moreover,  they 
should  be  aided  and  encouraged  in  accomijlishing 
their  end.  Better  provisions  for  instruction  are  de- 
manded for  them,  that  they  may  be  enabled  to  grapple 
with  the  newly  arising  conditions  which  a  changing 
industrial  world  is  forcing  upon  them.  It  is  these 
very  industrial  changes  which  are  the  important  fac- 
tors in  modifying  the  educational  status  of  women. 
They  are  of  more  force  than  any  sentiment  born  even 
of  custom  or  tradition.  They  are  the  forces  which 
are  reversing  the  sentiments  based  on  mediaeval  tra- 
dition. Changing  industrial  conditions  are  rapidly 
and  surely  forcing  women,  even  in  the  face  of  a  strong 
and  deep-rooted  prejudice,  to  become  educated  as  a 
means  of  livelihood.  In  the  days  when  women  spun 
all  the  yarn  and  made  all  articles  of  wearing  apparel 
by  hand  in  the  home  women  had  sufficient  work  to 
keep  them  employed,  and  they  could  earn  enough  to 
support  themselves.  But  with  the  introduction  of 
machinery  many  of  the  former  channels  of  domestic 
labour  have  been  closed.  Women  have  found  it  neces- 
sary to  seek  a  means  of  subsistence  elsewhere,  and 
many  of  the  newer  occupations  have  necessitated 
better  educational  preparation.  A  few  have  found 
occupations  as  teachers  in  the  lower  classes  of  the 
public  schools,  some  in  the  girls'  higher  schools,  and 


HIGHER  EDUCATION   OF   WOMEN.  343 

still  others  as  private  teachers  in  families.  This 
last  occupation  is  being  displaced,  however,by  the  pub- 
lic and  private  girls'  high  schools  that  are  every  year 
becoming  more  numerous.  Because  of  the  changed 
industrial  conditions,  also,  fewer  women  marry  than 
formerly.  Competition  in  the  business  world  is  so 
sharp  that  fewer  men  can  support  wives,  and  also 
because  the  household  duties  have  become  so  much 
diminished  that  a  man  feels  he  has  less  need  of  a  wife. 
In  the  lower  and  middle  classes,  if  the  women  marry, 
they  must  necessarily  work  in  the  factories  or  in 
some  business  as  clerks,  or  tend  small  shops  of  their 
own.*  Thus  the  education  of  women  is  being  forced 
upon  them  from  a  practical  subsistence  standpoint, 
and  the  demand  is  being  supplied  by  education  of  a 
utilitarian  character  largely.  These  changing  senti- 
ments and  changing  industrial  conditions  have  with- 
in the  last  ten  years  brought  the  so-called  Frauen- 
frage  into  considerable  prominence  in  Germany. 

A  few  women,  prominent  among  whom  is  Frilu- 
lein  Helene  Lange  of  Berlin,  who  are  anxious  to 
promote  the  best  interests  of  women  in  Germany, 
have  spared  no  effort  to  bring  legislation  and  public 
sympathy  to  contribute  to  the  better  establishment 
and  maintenance  of  all  classes  of  higher  schools  for 
girls.  They  are  not  seeking  to  elevate  from  present 
conditions  only,  by  educating  from  a  utilitarian  point 
of  view,  but  they  maintain  that  woman,  if  given  the 
chance,  would  prove  herself  capable  of  receiving  the 

*  Paulsen's   Ethik,   and  Berlin    hohere  Madchenschule   in 

Zeitsclirit't  fur  weibliche  Bildunp:. 


344:   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

same  kind  of  education  and  in  the  same  degree  as 
man. 

The  educational  periodical  literature,  as  well  as 
the  daily  press,  is  continually  mooting  the  Frauen- 
frage  both  2^>'(>  ^ud  con.  The  discussions  in  many 
respects  remind  one  of  the  arguments  to  be  found 
in  periodical  literature  in  America  in  the  middle  of 
the  present  century,  when  the  higher  education  of 
women  was  a  debated  question.  In  America  the 
question  has  been  settled ;  there  are  few  who  doubt 
that  woman  may  occupy  positions  in  any  of  the 
learned  callings  with  credit  to  herself  and  to  the 
calling.  The  high  schools,  colleges,  and  universities 
give  daily  proof  that  women  may  receive  to  advan- 
tage the  opportunities  for  the  highest  mental  train- 
ing which  the  land  affords.  Examination  records 
and  honour  lists  give  ample  evidence  that  they  do 
not  fall  by  the  wayside  nor  lack  in  pluck  and  endur- 
ance, nor  fail  to  secure  their  due  share  of  laurels. 
Even  in  German  universities,  when  accorded  an  op- 
portunity, they  carry  off  the  doctor's  honours  with 
credit.  AVith  these  achievements  of  American  and 
English  women  in  mind,  some  of  the  German  women 
have  been  spurred  on  to  follow  and  compete  with 
American  women  in  the  higher  intellectual  callings. 
However,  many  are  so  bitterly  opposed  to  the  so- 
called  Emancipation  der  Frauen  that  it  is  only  by 
severest  efforts  that  they  are  able  to  gain  any  ground 
at  all.  But,  as  Friiulein  Lange  says,  what  they  need 
in  settling  the  question  is  not  logic,  but  experiment. 

But  with  all  the  activities  looking  toward  the 
higher  education  of  women  in  other  countries,  espe- 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  345 

cially  in  America,  England,  and  Switzerland,  it  is 
becoming  imperative  that  some  just  measure  of 
recognition  be  taken  of  the  women  petitioners  for 
advantages  equal  to  those  offered  in  other  countries. 
Notwithstanding  all  that  has  been  accomplished  in 
this  direction  in  America,  many  of  the  German  op- 
ponents of  the  higher  education  of  women  will  not 
admit  that  the  results  are  desirable  ones.  Dr.  Sclione 
wrote  :  "  I  believe  we  have  no  reason,  if  we  observe 
America's  school  organization,  to  wish  for  the  higher 
education  of  women.  Moreover,  to  be  continually 
placing  America  as  a  pattern  is  only  possible  when 
one  has  no  knowledge  of  the  conditions  there,  or 
will  purposely  misrepresent  them.  Further,  thor- 
oughly educated  women  we  need,  but  learned  women 
not.  By  a  truly  educated  woman  is  to  be  understood 
one  who  is  prepared  in  the  household  arts.  A  learned 
woman  is  of  no  use  in  that  capacity."  *  Others  look 
upon  the  conditions  resulting  from  higher  education 
of  women  in  America  as  among  the  most  desirable 
attainments,  and  regard  America  as  a  Paradies  der 
Frauen.  Dr.  Emil  Hausknecht,  an  opponent,  says  : 
"  If  we  should  insist  on  expecting  of  our  girls  the 
same  amount  of  work  we  now  require  of  the  boys, 
the  girls  would  be  physically  ruined  under  the  enor- 
mous burden  of  work ;  hence  the  advocates  of  clas- 
sical secondary  schools  for  girls  will  fail  in  their 
endeavours."  He  has  viewed  the  situation  in  Amer- 
ica, and,  although  recognising  at  least  j^artial  success 

*  None  Forderungen,  in  Zeitschrift  f  iir  weibliche  Bildung, 
189r>,  p.  53. 


34G    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

iu  the  bystom  as  developed  under  American  condi- 
tions, he  does  not  believe  it  could  be  applied  success- 
fully in  Germany.  He  says  :  "  Still  it  must  be  ad- 
mitted that  in  a  few  of  their  colleges  the  Americans 
have  surpassed  us,  and  that  they  have  happily 
avoided  the  dangerous  rocks  on  which  a  higher  sci- 
entific education  for  girls  is  so  often  wrecked — the 
dangers  to  health,  diversions  from  the  duties  of  do- 
mesticity, the  disappearance  of  womanly  grace,  and 
the  growth  of  the  blue-stocking."  *  Upon  what  he 
bases  his  former  sweeping  statements  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine. The  experiment  has  never  been  tried  in 
Germany,  and  the  results  in  other  countries  would 
not  bear  out  his  assumptions.  It  is  simply  the  dog- 
matic reasoning  that  so  many  alarmists  have  indulged 
in.  The  European  discussions  remind  us  very  strong- 
ly of  the  prophecies  made  by  such  men  as  Dr.  Clarke 
in  this  country  a  generation  ago.  But,  as  Dr.  Harris 
l^oints  out.f  "  Exjjerience  has  not,  however,  con- 
firmed the  theory.  The  differences  of  mind,  on  the 
whole,  when  brought  to  bear  on  the  subjects  stud- 
ied in  college  or  university  tend  rather  to  help  than 
to  hinder  the  progress  of  both  sexes.  Each  jiarty 
gains  something  from  the  other's  views,  and,  although 
the  profit  of  higher  study  is  not  precisely  the  same 
for  women  as  for  men,  there  is  ample  profit  for  each. 
Hence  coeducation  in  college  work  makes  progress 
continually,  and  the  higher  education  of  women  in 

*  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  vol.  i,  1892-'93, 
p.  532. 

f  Preface  to  Higher  Education  of  \Yorac'n  in  Europe,  by 
Helen e  Lange,  p,  vi. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN.  34Y 

one  of  the  two  modes — in  separate  institutions  or 
in  coeducating  ones — is  become  quite  a  matter  of 
course." 

Dr.  Hausknecht  is  obliged  to  admit  that  "the 
common  opinion  of  physicians,  educators,  mothers, 
and  all  women  who  themselves  received  a  college 
education  in  America,  goes  to  confirm  the  state- 
ment that  the  health  of  girls  in  colleges  specially- 
intended  for  their  sex  is  not  only  not  endangered, 
but  promoted  by  means  of  wise  alternation  between 
intellectual  and  frequent  physical  exercises,  such  as 
walking,  cycling,  gymnastics,  swimming,  bathing, 
rowing,  etc.  The  condition  of  college  girls  is  gen- 
erally better  than  that  of  girls  of  equal  age  who  re- 
mained at  home."  *  But  feeling  that  he  must  make 
remonstrance,  no  matter  how  feeble,  he  maintains 
that  "  coeducation  is  possible,  however,  in  America 
more  than  in  Germany  or  elsewhere,  because  custom 
and  education  have  given  to  the  girl  and  the  woman 
greater  freedom  and  determination  in  their  manners 
and  appearance,  and  have  also  given  them  strong 
protection  against  encroachment  and  improprieties."  f 
Could  we  ask  for  a  better  testimonial  of  the  benefits 
of  the"  higher  education  of  women  or  a  more  eloquent 
plea  for  its  universal  extension  ?  The  fact  confirms 
the  theory  that  were  women  given  higher  education, 
were  coeducation  the  rule,  and  were  more  women 
teachers  employed  in  the  German  schools,  the  respect 
and  reverence  for  them  would  increase  and  elevate 
them  to  their  rightful  position. 

*  Bureau  of  Education  Reports,  vol.  i,  1893-'93,  p.  532. 
f  Ibid. 

24 


348    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

The  present  Empress,  although  opposed  to  "  man- 
nishness  "  in  woman,  would  not  countenance  idleness 
nor  make  woman  simply  an  ornament  or  a  drudge. 
She  conceives  matrimony  as  the  natural  destiny  of 
woman.*  She  says :  "  My  ideal  is  a  wife  who  is 
man's  complement,  who  strengthens  him,  Avho  in  the 
silent  bosom  of  the  family  prepares  him  for  life's 
severe  struggles.  I  am  opposed  to  women's  activity 
in  men's  callings.  I  would  permit  women  neither 
in  the  factory  nor  in  business  houses.  In  the  school, 
in  the  hospitals  and  sick  rooms,  on  the  stage,  in  the 
concert  halls,  in  the  studio,  there  is  her  sphere  of 
activity.  Embroidery,  fine  needlework,  all  kinds  of 
feminine  industrial  activity,  find  in  me  an  enthusias- 
tic admirer.  However,  may  woman  ever  hold  in 
mind  that  for  her  there  is  no  more  beautiful  calling, 
no  more  noble  destiny,  than  the  holy  and  important 
duty — the  foundation  of  every  state — the  moral  and 
bodily  education  of  the  child.  In  my  estimation, 
the  mother  of  the  Gracchi  stands  upon  a  higher  plane 
than  George  Sand  or  Rosa  Bonheur.  It  is  my  view 
that  a  woman  fulfils  her  entire  destiny  only  when 
she  is  a  wife  and  an  intelligent  mother." 

The  Emperor  is  also  very  strongly  opposed  to 
bookish  training  and  the  over-intellectual  develop- 
ment of  women.  He  is  reported  as  saying  that 
women's  interests  should  be  completely  absorbed  in 
the  "  three  K's  " — Kinder,  Kiiche,  unci  Kirche. 

The  possibility,  says  Miss  Lange,  of  having  true 
mothers  can  come  only  when  the  development  of 

*  Zeitschrift  fur  weibliche  Bildung,  1896,  pp.  88,  89. 


HIGHER  EDUCATION   OF  WOMEN.  349 

woman's  character  is  no  longer  liindered,  her  intelli- 
gence chained  and  kept  in  darkness.  The  inflneuce 
of  the  mother  npon  the  first  six  years  of  a  child's  life 
is  almost  continuous,  and  hence  we  must  logically 
conclude  that  any  lack  of  mentality  on  the  part  of 
the  mother  must  act  as  a  web  around  the  child  which 
chains  his  whole  being.  To  properly  instruct  chil- 
dren, or  even  to  intelligently  develop  their  senses,  the 
average  mothers  are  incapable.  For  the  majority 
this  knowledge  must  first  be  awakened ;  they  must 
first  learn  "  to  have  more  interest  in  the  soul  of  the 
child  than  for  embroidered  curtains."  The  influence 
of  mothers  on  all  great  men  has  been  immense, 
Avhile  the  lack  of  it  in  criminals'  mothers  is  suffi- 
ciently established.* 

Miss  Lange  has  made  an  eloquent  appeal  to  se- 
cure some  panacea  to  relieve  the  discontent  of  the 
modern  girl.  She  is  diametrically  opposed  to  the 
views  of  conservative  Germans,  that  the  admission 
of  women  to  higher  spheres  of  activity  will  cause  dis- 
content. She  has  shown  that  "  true  happiness  is  to 
be  found  in  work ;  there  can  be  no  leisure  without 
toil ;  people  who  do  nothing  are  unfruitful  fig  trees 
which  cumber  the  soil."  \  Xot  only  must  women  be 
allowed  to  work,  but  they  must  be  helped  and  aided 
in  their  work  the  same  as  men  are.  Moreover,  as  no 
man  is  happy  in  a  calling  arbitrarily  selected  for 
him  by  some  one  else,  so  women  "  must  have  the 
right  to  choose  according  to  their  powers  and  talents. 

*  Zeitschrift  fiir  weibliche  Bildung,  1890,  p.  475. 

t  Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe,  p.  122,  Klemm's 

translation. 


350    SECONDARY  SCEOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Xobody  chooses  otherwise.  Hence  no  field  of  labour 
should  be  denied,  not  even  the  highest  intellectual 
labour.  Those  who  intellectually  hunger  should  be 
offered  the  best  intellectual  food  available  in  Ger- 
many. No  one  in  Germany  should  be  denied  oppor- 
tunities to  fill  that  inner  desolate  void,  no  one 
obliged  to  stifle  what  is  considered  the  highest  sign 
of  superiority — a  longing  for  serious  mental  and  pro- 
fessional work.  Yet  this  murder  of  the  mind  is 
committed  daily  in  our  country."  * 

Friiulein  Haecker,  of  Coblenz,  conceives  the 
"aim  of  the  present  women's  movement  to  be  the 
highest  and  noblest  thinkable,  for  that  which  we 
women  really  strive  for  is  not  simply  the  permission 
to  enter  this  calling  or  that ;  not  simply  the  guarantee 
of  certain  individual  state  or  business  privileges  ;  it 
is  the  recognition  of  the  highest  rights  of  mankind — 
the  rights  of  inner  and  outer  personality — the  rights 
of  individuality."  f 

*  Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe,  p.  128,  Klemm's 
translation. 

•f-  Zeitschrift  fur  weibliehe  Biklung,  1894,  p.  363. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

In"  this  chapter  I  shall  attempt  to  summarize 
briefly  the  most  important  features  to  which  atten- 
tion has  been  directed  more  in  detail  throughout 
the  foregoing  pages.  The  summary  will  be  more 
critical  than  expository,  and  an  attempt  will  be 
made  to  point  out  the  most  significant  lessons — 
either  for  adaptation  or  avoidance — that  the  German 
system  has  for  us.  A  consideration  of  the  school 
organization,  methods  of  examining  teachers,  quali- 
fications of  teachers,  courses  of  study,  education  of 
women,  etc.,  has  revealed  many  striking  differences 
between  Germany's  school  system  and  our  own. 
Their  system  certainly  possesses  many  features  di- 
vergent from  America's ;  some  of  these  features  are 
highly  commendable  for  all  countries,  others  possess 
advantages  for  Germany  only,  while  still  others  seem 
objectionable  per  se.  To  sift  out  and  summarize 
these  several  features  is  the  aim  of  this  chapter. 

1.  General  Organization  and  Management. — The 
entire  system  may  be  termed  bureaucratic,  for,  al- 
though there  is  local  representation  and  a  certain 
degree  of  local  option  permitted,  the  initiative  in  all 

351 


352    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

movements  and  the  balance  of  power  rest  with  the 
state  officials,  who  are  virtually  appointees  of  the 
ruling  monarchs  of  each  state.  Tlie  cultus  minis- 
ter is  a  member  of  the  king's  cabinet.  The  king's 
decree  in  educational  matters  is  supreme,  and  all 
appointments  to  official  positions  are  indirectly  in  his 
power.  Local  autonomy  is  unknown.  True,  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  option  is  given  to  cities  as  to  what 
type  of  school  they  will  maintain  by  local  taxation, 
but  the  state  may  establish  whatever  schools  it  sees 
fit  and  may  support  them  from  the  public  treasury. 
The  general  administration  of  the  school,  selection 
of  teachers,  fixing  of  courses  of  study,  examination 
of  pupils,  etc.,  are  all  directly  or  indirectly  in  the 
hands  of  the  central  authority.  The  state  may  dele- 
gate to  the  city  certain  functions,  but  in  order  to 
secure  ahiturienten  privileges  for  its  students  the 
city  must  conform  to  state  regulations. 

Methods  of  taxation  and  support  need  not  detain 
us.  Our  system  is  probably  adjusted  to  our  demo- 
cratic form  of  government  as  Germany's  is  to  its 
monarchical  institutions.  Investigation  of  this  de- 
partment concerns  state  administration  or  sociology 
rather  than  pedagogy.  Germany's  method  of  selec- 
tion of  teachers  is  incompatible  with  our  thorough 
faith  in  local  autonomy.  The  more  we  can  leave  to 
local  option  the  greater  the  interest  created  and  the 
greater  efforts  toward  self-education.  Our  system 
tends  to  produce  individuals  rather  than  types.  Ob- 
servation leads  me  to  believe  that  a  stronger  feeling 
of  interest  concerning  education  is  exhibited  by  par- 
ents in  America,  especially  of  the  lower  and  middle 


CONCLUSIONS.  853 

classes,  than  in  Germany,  There  the  interest  is 
more  concerned  with  the  fulfilment  of  the  law  than 
with  active  personal  relations. 

Certain  features  of  a  professional  character  can 
be  much  more  efficiently  conducted  by  a  central 
body  than  when  left  to  local  autonomy.  Among 
these  are  the  certification  of  teachers,  preparation  of 
courses  of  study,  etc.  But  with  these,  as  with  all 
matters  delegated  to  the  state,  the  more  satisfactory 
and  no  less  efficient  manner,  at  least  for  a  democratic 
country,  is  to  have  a  representative  body  rather  than 
one  centrally  appointed.  To  a  certain  extent  we 
have  imitated  Germany  in  the  state  certification  of 
teachers  and  in  proscribing  uniform  state  courses  of 
study.  We  might  with  great  advantage  to  our  edu- 
cational system  carry  out  the  scheme  in  toto.  Xofc 
only  should  each  State  examine  and  certificate  all  its 
teachers  by  some  uniform  method,  but  a  given  cer- 
tificate in  one  State  ought  to  be  recognised  at  its  face 
value  in  all  the  States.  It  would  seem  also  a  great  ad- 
vantage were  the  high-school  graduates'  diplomas,  like 
the  Reifezeugniss^  recognised  in  all  sections,  without 
consideration  of  State  boundaries.  In  Germany  all 
universities  require  the  same  qualifications  for  en- 
trance. A  boy  educated  in  a  Prussian  gymnasium 
or  real-school  can  move  to  Saxony  and  enter  a  uni- 
versity there  as  well  as  one  in  Prussia.  We  all  know 
the  condition  in  the  United  States.  It  is  gratifjing 
that  our  A.  B.  degrees  are  almost  everywhere  ac- 
cepted for  entrance  upon  graduate  study.  The 
university  courses  are  more  and  more  being  planned 
with  some  idea  of  general  equivalence  ;  why  may  we 


354    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

not  extend  this  to  the  high  schools  and  to  college-en- 
trance requirements?  The  unqualified  success  in 
Germany  certainly  affords  a  strong  plea.  It  is  im- 
perative for  the  welfare  of  education  that  we  attain 
greater  unity  of  aim  in  education.  This  can  only  be 
done  satisfactorily  by  the  greater  centralization  of 
the  purely  pedagogical  and  professional  administra- 
tion of  education.  The  universities  act  as  a  great 
unifying  agent  in  education,  but  their  influence  is 
largely  hortatory.  We  need  more  binding  legisla- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  States,  and  some,  at  least,  ad- 
visory body  representing  the  different  States,  that 
will  tend  to  unify  educational  matters.  In  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Regierungs  Kommissioji  we  have  a 
good  example  of  the  efficiency  of  such  a  body. 

2.  Position  of  the  Secondary  Schools  171  the  Sys- 
tem.— The  secondary  schools,  like  those  of  England, 
form  a  class  in  almost  no  respect  continuous  with 
the  common  schools,  which  in  all  countries  do  and 
must  contain  the  bulk  of  the  school  po]3ulation. 
The  people's  schools  and  the  secondary  schools'  over- 
lap in  several  years  of  their  courses.  But  although 
this  is  true,  the  division  of  the  work  is  such  that  a 
boy  from  the  people's  school  must  begin  near  the 
foot  of  the  ladder  again  if  he  attempts  a  course  in 
the  secondary  schools.  The  masses  are  debarred  by 
the  higher  tuition  from  participating  in  the  benefits 
of  the  secondary  schools  which  they  are  taxed  to 
support,  f  The  system  apparently  Avorks  without 
much  friction  in  European  countries,  but  in  a  coun- 
try founded  upon  and  steeped  with  democratic  prin- 
ciples  the   system   would   be    untenable.     Even   in 


CONCLUSIONS.  355 

Germany  there  is  not  entire  satisfaction  with  the 
arrangement.  The  later  reform  movements  indi- 
cate that  the  people  at  least  wish  to  secure  some 
form  of  instruction  common  to  all  the  lower  classes 
(Binheitsschulen),  which  will  enable  all  to  pursue  a 
higher  course  subsequently  if  pecuniary  conditions 
permit.  Kone  wish  to  be  excluded  because  of  the 
lack  of  continuity  of  the  school  courses.  (See 
Frankfort  plan,  etc.) 

/  The  European  system  is  distinctly  a  class  sys- 
tem, and  in  my  opinion  it  militates  directly  against 
the  lower  classes.  Only  those  possessed  of  at  least 
moderate  means  can  hope  to  secure  the  benefits  of 
higher  education.  The  poor  boy  can  never  know 
whether  he  has  in  him  the  requisites  for  scholar- 
ship. Xewsboys,  bootblacks,  match  venders,  stable- 
boys,  farmer  boys,  and  canal-boat  boys  can  never  hope 
to  rise  above  their  station.  |  They  will  never  be  num- 
bered among  the  college  professors  or  among  states- 
men. Our  own  country  can  point  to  hundreds  of 
scholars  and  men  of  distinction  in  the  various  voca- 
tions who,  had  they  been  born  under  and  remained 
under  the  German  flag,  would  have  gone  down  to 
their  graves  unremembered. 

The  more  we  can  do  to  strengthen  the  continuity 
between  primary  and  secondary  schools,  between 
secondary  and  higher  schools,  the  greater  will  be  the 
strength  of  our  educational  system.  /  The  secondary 
schools  must  be  a  fitting  continuation  of  the  primary 
schools,  and  a  natural  road  to  higher  education  and 
for  life's  duties.  By  extending  the  benefits  of  edu- 
cation to  all  alike,  as  we  are  largely  doing,  we  need 


35G    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

not  be  troubled  with  Germany's  hallucinations  of  a 
land  filled  with  "  hunger  candidates,"  the  result  of 
ov^r-education. 

"We  should  seek  through  education  to  elevate 
work,  not  to  raise  men  by  education  above  work. 
How  to  adjust  education  to  accomplish  this  better  is 
a  pertinent  question,  but  one  beyond  the  province  of 
this  work  to  enter  upon.  The  solution,  most  as- 
suredly, is  not  in  withliolding  higher  education  from 
any  who  desire  it.  Such  a  system  crushes  out  all 
personal  ambitions  and  aspirations  of  the  lower 
classes. 

3.  Classical  and  realistic  instruction  in  entirely 
separate  institutions  offer  certain  advantages.  The 
energies  of  the  school  are  not  dissipated  in  too  di- 
verse directions,  and  the  result  is  that  the  highest 
type  of  work  is  accomplished  in  the  class  represented. 
There  are  some  disadvantages,  especially  in  smaller 
cities  that  can  afford  only  one  type  of  school.  This 
would  be  avoided  in  a  large  measure  by  the  Einlicits- 
5c7i?;7e  affording  common  instruction  later,  and  hence 
enabling  pupils  to  remain  longer  at  home  before 
removing  to  another  place  to  complete  the  desired 
course.  Our  own  high  schools  suffer  from  a  too 
great  dissipation  of  energy  in  attempting  to  offer 
too  many  varieties  of  instruction.  Similarly  to  the 
new  Frankfort  plan,  we  need  to  offer  a  concentrated 
course  extended  as  late  as  possible,  rather  than  to 
induce  too  early  specialization.  The  function  of 
the  schools  is  to  prepare  men  and  women,  not  spe- 
cialists, tradesmen,  nor  candidates  for  a  particular 
college.     The  schools  have  no  right  to  assume  the 


CONCLUSIONS.  357 

classics  as  the  chief  end  to  be  attained,  nor  is  it 
their  sphere  to  assume  that  the  realities  make  up 
the  sum  of  life.  The  preparation  for  life  is  the  busi- 
ness of  the  schools,  and  whatever  best  subserves  that 
purpose  should  be  sought.  Specialization,  according 
to  biological  and  psychological  laws,  should  be  later 
acquisitions.  Entire  devotion  to  the  classics  or  to 
the  realistic  studies  undoubtedly  is  a  form  of  special- 
ization. Waste  of  energies  from  attempting  too 
many  lines  of  work,  it  is  true,  should  be  avoided.  "We 
need  concentration,  and  prolonged  concentration  upon 
all  lines  attempted,  but  not  ^ncialization,  nor  exclu- 
sion of  all  except  one  given  line  of  work. 

4.  Concentration  in  Studies. — We  have  seen  that 
the  German  plan  is  to  make  some  grou])  of  studies 
the  core  of  all  the  work  in  a  given  course.  In  the 
humanistic  gymnasium  the  classics  form  the  core, 
while  in  the  realistic  institutions  studies  in  Xature 
and  mathematics  receive  the  stress  of  work.  The  mul- 
tiplicity of  subjects  and  the  dissipation  of  energy  in 
American  schools  are  well  known.  Pupils  dabble  in 
this  and  dabble  in  that,  taste  here  and  taste  there ; 
they  flit  about  from  subject  to  subject  without  a  real 
appreciation  or  understanding  of  any.  .  In  nearly  all 
subjects  attempted  in  Germany  the  course  is  con- 
tinuous throughout  the  entire  school  life. 

I  believe  that  the  arrangement  of  the  courses  of 
study  in  American  schools  forms  one  of  the  most 
pressing  and  important  problems  for  our  considera- 
tion. The  making  of  a  course  of  study  means  more 
than  finding  a  place  on  the  school  programme  where 
all  apparently  necessary  and  desirable  branches  of 


358   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

human  learning  shall  be  represented  ;  also  more  than 
a  distribution  of  subjects  in  such  a  way  as  to  avoid 
conflicts.  The  curriculum  as  a  whole  and  the  pro- 
gramme in  detail  should  be  so  planned  as  to  have 
each  subject  presented  at  the  period  most  adapted 
to  the  psychical  development  of  pupils.  Unfortu- 
nately, the  purely  external  practical  considerations 
usually  take  precedence  over  the  psychological. 

The  "final  test  by  which  to  judge  any  plan  of 
culture,"  says  Spencer,  "  is.  Does  it  create  a  pleasur- 
able excitement  in  the  pupils  ?  "  True  intellectual 
interest  is  more  than  mere  transient  pleasurable 
emotion  in  that  which  is  novel  or  striking.  It  is 
dependent  upon  one's  knowledge.  Both  the  amount 
of  knowledge  upon  a  given  subject  and  the  relation 
it  is  made  to  assume  toward  other  knowledge  alfects 
one's  interests  in  the  subject.  IS'ow,  studies  that 
occupy  the  attention  of  the  learner  for  a  short  period 
only  are  consequently  viewed  in  only  one  general 
aspect,  and  necessarily  fail  to  produce  deep  or  last- 
ing interest  in  them.  For  the  arousal  of  permanent 
interests  in  a  subject,  it  must  be  looked  at  in  diverse 
relations.  This  means  that  it  must  come  before  the 
learner  at  difl'erent  periods  of  his  life,  when  he  has 
new  data  with  which  to  link  it,  and  when  his  stages 
of  development  make  it  possible  to  use  the  subject 
as  an  aid  in  bringing  to  complete  maturity  the  awak- 
ening instincts.  Each  phase  of  every  subject  should 
be  j)resented  when  the  "  nascent  periods  "  of  interest 
in  the  different  phases  appear.  "  The  great  thing  in 
all  pedagogy,"  says  James,  "  is  to  strike  when  the 
iron  is  hot." 


CONCLUSIONS.  359 

To  present  the  philosophy  of  history  and  gram- 
matical  abstractions  when  the  chikl  is  in  the  nascent 
period  of  concrete  illustrations  is  to  proceed  counter 
to  all  psychological  laws.  And  when  studies  are 
pursued  for  a  limited  time  only,  all  phases  must  be 
presented  at  one  time,  if  presented  at  all ;  hence 
many  phases  are  very  inopportune. 

"When  a  study  is  pursued  for  a  single  term,  or  a 
year  at  most,  and  never  reverted  to,  as  is  the  case 
with  the  majority  of  studies  in  our  high  schools,  the 
newly  acquired  knowledge  has  little  chance  of  be- 
coming an  integral  part  of  the  unity  of  mental  pos- 
sessious.  It  is  acquired  as  an  isolated  set  of  facts, 
and  all  that  does  not  "  evaporate  "  remains  largely 
isolated  through  life.  Although  all  pedagogues  will 
quote  glibly  the  statement  that  discipline  and  train- 
ing are  of  paramount  importance,  and  the  knowledge 
of  facts  of  secondary  importance,  yet  how  many 
make  any  attempts,  or  even  realize  that  an  attempt  is 
necessary,  to  provide  proper  conditions  for  real  train- 
ing? It  is  usually  lost  sight  of  that  discipline  of 
mind  comes  through  acquiring  and  retaining  knowl- 
edge, and  that  these  processes  are  dependent  upon 
the  proper  grouping  of  knowledge.  It  is  not  alone 
the  few  facts  which  are  logically  or  objectively 
connected  with  a  given  fact,  but  the  whole  mental 
content,  that  determines  how  new  materials  shall  be 
assimilated  and  retained.  This  necessitates  a  con- 
sideration of  the  relation  of  all  the  parts  of  the  cur- 
riculum to  each  other  and  to  the  Avhole. 

In  the  arrangement  of  our  courses  of  study  we 
have  been  guided  almost  entirely  by  merely  practical 


360    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

considerations.  There  has  been  altogether  too  little 
psychological  and  pedagogical  perspective.  To  have 
pupils  finish  all  the  prescribed  studies  in  a  given 
course  has  been  the  main  desideratum.  Whether 
the  knowledge  of  those  subjects  should  be  abiding, 
and  whether  those  studies  should  furnish  real  men- 
tal grasp  and  ability,  have  been  rather  secondary  con- 
siderations. The  pupils  often  pursue  their  subject 
units  with  little  else  in  mind  than  the  "finishing" 
of  the  subject.  Ask  most  high-school  graduates 
whether  they  have  had  history  or  physics,  etc.,  and 
they  will  tell  you,  "  Yes,  we  '  finished '  that  "  at  such 
a  time.  And  because  of  the  brevity  of  time  through 
which  the  subject  was  pursued  and  the  single  view 
which  they  have  obtained,  they  frequently  neither 
know  nor  care  whether  there  is  more  beyond.  In- 
terests that  have  germinated  have  become  dormant 
from  lack  of  exercise,  or  because  they  have  been 
choked  out  by  the  plethora  of  new  and  unrelated  ma- 
terials forced  upon  them.  The  American  boy  at  the 
close  of  his  high-school  career  has  seldom  tasted 
that  inspiration  which  comes  from  deep  and  unified 
knowledge,  and  which  leads  to  the  contemplation  of 
infinite  possibilities.  He  is  more  apt  to  be  dissatis- 
fied, which  is  a  natural  result  from  the  contempla- 
tion of  his  own  sense  of  completeness. 

It  is  a  hopeful  sign  that  our  universities  have 
been  so  thoroughly  impregnated  with  the  German 
ideas  of  continuity  and  correlation.  Their  curricula 
are  being  arranged  upon  a  more  psychological  basis. 
Xow,  all  great  educational  movements  begin  in  the 
higher  institutions  and  work  toward  the  lower.    The 


CONCLUSIONS.  3G1 

law  may  be  termed  tliat  of  "  descending  radiation." 
According  to  this,  the  diit'usion  of  German  ideals  in 
education  must  soon  permeate  the  high  schools  and 
grammar  schools. 

The  Eeport  of  the  Committee  of  Ten  on  Second- 
ary Schools  advocated  many  of  the  views  which  I 
have  maintained.  The  Reijort  of  the  Committee  of 
Fifteen  also  advised  the  earlier  introduction  of  some 
of  the  secondary-school  studies  and  the  continua- 
tion of  nearly  all  studies  through  a  much  longer 
time.  More  recently  the  Committee  of  Seven  on 
History  Teaching  have  re-emphasized  very  strongly 
the  plea  for  greater  continuity  in  education.  Many 
Avriters  arc  independently  asserting  the  necessity  for 
prolonged  continuous  effort  in  some  lines  of  work,  so 
as  to  give  the  j)upils  a  sense  of  mastery.  It  is  only 
thus  that  they  can  be  brought  to  self-realization  and 
independence.  Professor  Hanus,  in  a  recent  work, 
says  that  through  the  pursuit  of  "  dominant  groups 
of  ideas  the  organization  of  his  knowledge  and 
thorough  achievement  are  natural  and  inevitable. 
Without  them,  desultory  effort,  sporadic  exertion, 
half  achievement  are  sure  to  determine  the  nature 
and  quality  of  his  work.  The  intellectual  fiabbiness 
and  uncertainty,  the  want  of  enthusiasm  and  pleas- 
ure in  knowledge  and  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  too 
often  shown  by  many  a  high-school  pupil  and  by 
too  many  high-school  graduates,  illustrate  what  is 
meant.  .  .  .  Further,  intensiveness  and  continuity 
in  the  pursuit  of  individual  subjects  beyond  their 
barest  rudiments,  and  of  activities  beyond  their  be- 
ginnings, are  essential  to  the  development  of  power. 


362    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Sucli  intensiyeiioss  and  continuity  only  can  deter- 
mine whether  a  pupil  has  a  real  or  merely  a  transi- 
tory or  illusory  interest  in  given  subjects."  * 

One  of  the  greatest  of  living  educators  has  said : 
"  Only  great,  concentrated,  and  prolonged  efEorts  in 
one  direction  really  train  the  mind,  because  only 
they  train  the  will  beneath  it.  Many  little,  hetero- 
geneous efforts  of  different  sorts,  as  some  one  has 
said  in  substance,  leave  the  mind  like  a  piece  of 
well-used  blotting  paper,  and  the  will  like  a  rubber 
band  stretched  to  flaccidity  around  one  after  another 
bundle  of  objects  too  large  for  it  to  clasp  into  unity. 
'  In  der  Beschriinkung  zeigt  sich  der  Meister.' 
All-sidedness  through  one-sidedness.  The  unity  of 
almost  any  even  ideal  jiurpose  is  better  than  none,  if 
it  tends  to  check  the  superficial  one  of  learning  to 
repeat  again  or  of  boxing  the  whole  compass  of 
sciences  and  liberal  arts,  as  so  many  of  our  high 
schools  and  colleges  attempt."  f 

5.  Teachers'  Training. — Germany's  teaching  force 
has  manifest  superiority  over  ours  in  certain  respects. 
The  thorough  training  that  all  must  secure  before 
entrance  upon  their  duties  insures  advantages  appar- 
ent to  all.  '  From  the  standpoint  of  mere  subject 
teaching  thoroughly  equipped  teachers  can  better 
and  more  quickly  impart  knowledge.  Thus  pupils 
are  enabled  to  master  a  greater  range  of  knowledge 
in  less  time  and  also  to  gain  a  firmer  grasp  of  all 
attempted.     More  than  that,  it  is  the  added  insight, 

*  Educational  Aims  and  Values,  1899,  p.  37. 
t  Dr.  G.  Stanley  Hall,  Moral  Education  and  Will  Training, 
Ped.  Sem.,  vol.  ii,  p.  88. 


CONCLUSIONS.  303 

enabling  a  more  accurate  estimate  of  everything  at 
its  right  -value,  which  places  the  trained  teacher 
above  the  unskilled  novice.  Then  the  moral  stamina 
which  such  teachers  can  infuse  is  of  inestimable 
value. 

Means  of  Training. — The  methods  in  vogue  in 
Germany  for  training  secondary  teachers  offer  many 
points  of  comparison  and  interest  for  the  solution  of 
this  vital  problem  in  America.  The  plan  followed 
there  is  entirely  different  from  anything  that  we 
have  attempted.  The  plan,  as  has  been  shov/n  in 
detail,  is  {a)  at  least  three  years  of  university  study; 
{b)  prolonged  study  of  the  special  branches  the  can- 
didate expects  to  teach  as  a  prerequisite  to  exami- 
nation; (c)  philosophy,  psychology,  and  pedagogy 
must  be  one  group  of  examination  subjects;  {d)  the 
setnifiar  or  professional  year  is  required,  which  in- 
cludes study,  practice,  criticism ;  (e)  the  trial  year  is 
required  under  conditions  as  near  as  possible  to 
actual  future  conditions. 

The  general  end  to  be  attained  is  one  which  we 
need  to  make  strenuous  efforts  to  secure.  The  great 
lack  of  professional  equipment  has  long  been  one  of 
the  vulnerable  points  in  our  system.  We  have  had 
either  teachers  with  academic  preparation  but  wholly 
lacking  in  professional  training,  and  during  the  first 
years  of  their  work  without  definiteness  of  aim,  and 
perchance  through  their  whole  career  without  philo- 
sophical balance ;  or  teachers  with  so-called  profes- 
sional preparation  without  proper  academic  knowl- 
edge of  their  subjects.  Professional  training  can 
only  properly  follow  thorough  academic  study.     This 


3G4    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

is  Germany's  plan.  A  new  era,  however,  is  in  sight 
in  America,  thougli  not  fully  inaugurated,  which  will 
demand  for  the  high  schools  adequately  prepared 
teachers.  The  movement,  like  all  great  educational 
movements,  began  at  the  to^i,  and  is  proceeding  down- 
ward ;  that  is,  the  universities  have  demanded  bet- 
ter prepared  students,  which  could  only  be  met  by 
an  invigoration  of  the  teaching  force  where  univer- 
sity students  are  prepared.  Then,  again,  the  supply 
of  college-trained  teachers  is  increasing  so  rapidly 
that  competition  is  driving  the  unfit  to  the  wall. 

The  new  movement  to  supply  the  deficiencies  in 
the  strictly  professional  preparation  of  secondary 
teachers  and  superintendents  in  some  respects  re- 
sembles the  German  plan,  though  in  other  respects 
there  is  a  radical  difference.  I  have  reference  to  the 
schools  of  education  or  schools  of  pedagogy  *  being 
rapidly  established  in  universities.  Both  the  grad- 
uate and  the  undergraduate  dej^artments  of  these 
schools  have  important  functions.  Such  schools 
possess  important  advantages  over  training  schools 
isolated  from  universities.  The  chief  feature  is  that 
students  are  in  contact  with  high  scholarship,  ade- 
quate libraries  and  appliances,  and  are  apt  to  imbibe 
aspirations  for  breadth  of  learning,  and  not  to  fall, 
into  mere  so-called  professionalism.  The  system 
presents  certain  features  superior  to  the  German 
plan.     The    consideration    of    educational    history, 

*  For  an  outline  of  the  earlier  part  of  this  new  movement 
see  The  Professional  Preparation  of  Secondary  Teachers  in 
the  United  States,  Dr.  F,  W.  Atkinson,  Dissertation,  Leipzig, 
1893. 


CONCLUSIONS.  365 

philosophy,  theory  and  its  application,  go  hand  in 
hand.  In  Germany  courses  in  systems  of  philosophy, 
psychology,  and  in  educational  history  are  given  in 
the  universities.  But  courses  in  current  educational 
problems,  application  of  psychology  to  education, 
child  study,  foreign  educational  systems,  etc.,  are 
wholly  lacking.  These  subjects  can  be  more  profit- 
ably presented  by  university  professors  who  have 
the  scholarship,  time,  and  libraries  than  by  gymna- 
sial  instructors.  We  have  not  developed  practice 
schools  or  model  schools  to  any  extent  in  the  uni- 
versity schools  of  education,  nor  have  we  the  Probe- 
jahr.  The  functions  of  our  new  university  training 
schools  are  thought  to  be  to  lay  the  foundations  of 
education,  to  consider  the  broad  principles  of  educa- 
tion, to  teach  educational  philosophy,  and  not  to 
spend  the  time  in  practising  devices. 

6.  As  tentative  suggestions  the  following  are 
offered  as  an  outline  of  minimum  requirements  that 
should  be  made  of  all  candidates  for  secondary- 
school  positions: 

A.  Teachers  should  have  received  a  full  uni- 
versity or  collegiate  course,  including  (or  in  addi- 
tion to  it)  at  least  one  year  of  professional  study,  to 
embrace  {a)  physiology,  {h)  psychology,  (c)  educa- 
tional history  and  theory,  [d)  philosophy. 

K  state  certificate  may  be  secured  by  examination, 
but  at  least  two  years  of  collegiate  training  should  be 
one  prerequisite  therefor.  Xot  only  ability  to  answer 
examination  questions  is  necessary,  but  acquaintance 
with  men,  apparatus,  libraries,  and  appliances  is 
indispensable.     The  "  self-made  "  man  is  only  half 


3G6   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

made.  The  book  learning  he  may  have  acquired,  but 
the  no  less  important  factors  are  apt  to  be  lacking. 

B.  Principals  and  superintendents,  both  city  and 
country,  should  have  a  full  collegiate  course  j)lus,  at 
least,  one  year  of  professional  study. 

This  Avould  relegate  to  the  normal  schools  the 
function  of  preparing  teachers  for  the  primary  and 
grammar  schools,  which  is  all  tliey  can  hope  to  do  in 
time  to  come.  In  these  each  student  ought  to  take 
one  line  of  intensive  work  (in  connection  with  the 
professional),  so  that  graduates  would  be  not  merely 
teachers,  but  teachers  of  something.  While  the  man, 
the  woman,  is  above  the  subject,  yet  there  need  be 
no  sacrifice  of  character  in  prejDaring  for  a  definite 
thing.  The  character  will  then  be  enabled  to  assert 
itself  all  the  more  strongly, 

7.  Teachers^  Exmninations. — The  method  of  exam- 
ination of  teachers  in  Germany  insures  a  fair  test 
of  each  candidate's  powers.  Xo  mere  memorizing 
and  cramming  for  a  set  of  questions  to  be  answered 
at  one  sitting  will  suffice.  The  plan  of  prescribing 
a  thesis  to  be  prepared  in  a  given  time  is  similar  to 
that  followed  in  universities  where  a  thesis  in  the 
major  studj^  is  exacted  of  all  asjiirants  for  degrees. 
The  teaching  candidate  is  given  a  month  to  demon- 
strate whether  he  knows  how  to  use  knowledge,  how 
to  use  books  and  libraries,  and  to  show  whether  he 
can  assimilate,  interjsret,  and  expound  data  which 
he  collects.  In  certain  cases  the  doctorate  disserta- 
tion is  accepted  in  place  of  a  separate  essay.  This 
is  a  very  commendable  feature.  The  oral  examina- 
tion of  candidates  singly  gives  a  chance  for  the  ex- 


CONCLUSIONS.  367 

amiuers  to  estimate  capability  in  diverse  ways  not 
limited  to  the  questions  on  the  subject-matter. 
Examiners  acquire  a  personal  knowledge  of  each 
candidate  during  the  various  stages  of  the  exami- 
nation, which  is  invaluable.  Lastly,  the  demonstra- 
tion of  actual  teaching  skill  in  conducting  a  class 
before  the  examiners,  which,  although  not  so  im- 
portant, is  of  additional  value  in  gaining  a  per- 
sonal acquaintance  with  the  candidate.  I  believe 
we  might  to  great  advantage  adopt  almost  every 
feature  of  their  plan  of  examination.  Its  thorough- 
ness and  rationality  and  its  restriction  to  a  few  sub- 
jects make  it  far  surpass  the  methods  commonly  in 
vogue  in  this  country.  By  the  solely  written  test 
no  personal  acquaintance  of  the  teacher  is  acquired. 
Knowledge  as  shown  in  the  power  of  writing  ex- 
aminations is  by  no  means  the  most  vital  featiire  to 
be  inquired  into  in  admitting  to  the  teaching  pro- 
fession. What  we  need  to  look  for  as  well  are  ster- 
ling character,  personal  magnetism,  breadth  of  cul- 
ture, and  professional  bearing.  These  can  be  better 
determined  by  a  thesis  which  requires  time,  patience, 
perseverance,  and  breadth  of  reading  and  by  an  oral 
examination  which  exhibits  the  candidate's  strength 
or  points  of  vulnerability,  mode  of  attacking  ques- 
tions, and  manner  of  oral  expression,  all  of  which  are 
important  considerations.  By  the  acceptance  of  col- 
lege and  normal-school  diplomas  we  virtually  recog- 
nise this  as  a  superior  method.  Candidates  who  have 
been  long  under  the  personal  tutelage  of  trusted  au- 
thorities, and  who  have  had  long  courses  of  instruc- 
tion, may  be  considered  as  having  passed  through 


368   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

long  periods  of  examination  of  which  tliere  is  no 
equivalent.  Those  who  show  their  strength  and 
powers  of  endurance  are  admitted  to  certain  jirivi- 
leges  without  further  formal  examination.  Such 
procedure  ought  to  be  a  guarantee  that  the  psycho- 
logical and  pedagogical  attainments  have  been 
reached.  Baccalaureates  who  intend  eventually  to 
become  barristers,  clergymen,  or  prescribers  of  pills 
and  boluses,  and  who  have  never  studied  a  peda- 
gogical or  psychological  principle,  ought  not  to  be 
allowed  to  enter  the  ranks  of  teachers  without  first 
making  adequate  preparation.  Those  who  are  neither 
born  nor  made  for  the  profession  should  be  excluded 
therefrom. 

8.  Departmental  Teachers. — Except  in  the  lower 
grades  department  teaching  is  the  rule  in  Germany. 
There  is  not,  of  course,  the  rigorous  division  of  sub- 
jects that  there  is  in  a  university.  But  no  teacher, 
as  was  shown  in  the  subject  of  Teachers'  Examina- 
tions, has  more  than  one  group  of  closely  allied  sub- 
jects. The  higher  the  grade  of  pupils  a  teacher 
Instructs  the  smaller  the  range  of  subjects  required 
and  the  greater  the  depth  of  knowledge  demanded 
in  the  few.  The  great  objection  made  against  the 
system  is  the  anticipated  lack  of  definite  moral 
training  afforded  to  pupils.  While  there  is  validity 
in  the  objection,  especially  for  lower  grades,  yet  the 
difficulties  may  undoubtedly  be  overcome  by  judi- 
cious grouping  of  subjects  and  wise  supervision. 
The  objections  grow  less  with  advancing  grades  and 
the  advantages  multiply.  In  this  country  there  is 
some  difficulty  in  securing  properly  qualified  special 


CONCLUSIONS.  369 

teachers  because  of  small  salaries.  Here  the  "  teach- 
ers are  fewer,  and  must  divide  their  time  among 
several  subjects ;  in  such  cases  the  first  step  is  to 
employ  teachers  with  a  good  all-round  training,  with 
some  extended  preparation  on  each  subject  they 
undertake,  in  preference  to  those  who  have  a  smat- 
tering of  many  subjects."  * 

This  difficulty  does  not  appear  in  Germany,  since 
the  Government  regulates  the  salaries,  and  schools 
in  small  cities  secure  equally  as  good  teachers  as  the 
larger  ones.  The  advantages  that  are  secured  by 
receiving  instruction  from  a  master,  an  authority 
rather  than  a  mere  echoist,  are  so  apparent  to  a  pro- 
fessional eye  that  it  would  seem  unnecessary  to  reit- 
erate them.  Yet  school  boards,  and  even  some  super- 
intendents, exhibit  a  woeful  lack  of  appreciation  of 
the  fact.  In  Germany,  teachers  are  encouraged  and 
even  required  to  keep  up  with  the  progress  of  their 
subjects.  There,  teachers  as  well  as  university  men 
must  do  original  investigation  if  they  would  not  fall 
behind  in  the  race.  The  yearly  scientific  disserta- 
tion sent  out  by  some  member  of  the  faculty  of  each 
secondary  school  is  an  example  of  what  is  accom- 
plished. This  specialization  insures  a  class  of  teach- 
ers who  are  not  only  masters,  but  authorities ;  it 
raises  them  above  all  servility  to  text-book  teaching. 
They  teach  better,  waste  less  time,  better  sift  out 

*  Report  of  the  Committee  (of  Ten)  on  Secondary  School 
Studies,  1893,  p.  187.  This  committee  dealt  with  tlie  school 
side  of  the  question.  I  liave  endeavoured  to  show  how  a  reform 
in  examinations  requiring  fewer  subjects  and  more  extended 
research  would  remedy  some  of  these  evils.    (See  topic  Teachers.) 


370    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

the  unessentials,  give  greater  inspiration,  and  better 
scholarship  is  the  natural  result.  There  is  no  appar- 
ent disciplinary  loss — in  fact,  the  greatly  increased 
interest  aroused  is  the  initial  impulse  to  greater  jier- 
sistence.  Hence,  will  power  is  augmented.  It  has 
been  said  that  "above  all,  the  teacher  must  keep 
up  with  the  times  in  books,  methods,  lines  of  thought, 
and  interest.  .  .  .  She  must  realize  that  the  world  is 
always  passing  on,  and  that,  like  Alice  in  Wonder- 
land, she  must  run  as  fast  as  she  can  to  keep  where 
she  is.  .  .  .  She  must  keep  herself  in  connection  with 
the  great  teachers  of  her  time."  * 

This  is  the  especial  need  of  keeping  up  in  one's 
special  line  of  teaching.  It  is  impossible  to  be  "  Jack 
of  all  trades  "  and  master  of  any  one.  Let  us  hope 
for  a  Germanizing  in  this  respect.  The  opportuni- 
ties for  securiiig  adequately  trained  teachers  are 
such  that  every  good  high  school  should  be  properly 
equipped.  The  supply  of  candidates  is  now,  or  soon 
will  be,  such  that  no  school  board  need  put  up  with 
incompetent  teachers.  The  need  of  specially  trained 
teachers  is  not  confined  to  the  high  schools.  The 
Committee  of  Ten  have  pointed  out  that  "  many 
teachers  are  too  unskilled  to  present  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools  the  beginnings  of  geometry,  science, 
history,  or  literature,  and  that  the  failures  in  this 
work  are  due  to  the  mechanical  efforts  of  those  who 
have  had  no  higher  or  special  training."  f 

*  Quoted  in  Report  of  Commission  on  Secondary  School 
Studies,  p.  186. 

f  See  Bureau  of  Educational  Reports,  vol.  ii,  1892-93,  p. 
1476, 


CONCLUSIONS.  371 

9.  Tlie  amount  of  work  given  German  piqjils  is 
simply  enormous.  They  have  at  least  ten  hours  a 
week  more  work  than  corresponding  classes  in  our 
schools.  It  would  seem  unwise  to  attempt  to  imi- 
tate in  this  respect.  There  is  little  doubt  that  in 
our  climate  serious  consequences  would  result.  Even 
in  Germany  the  cry  of  iXberiirdung  (overloading)  has 
gone  up  from  all  j)a^rts  of  the  empire.  Many  believe 
that  in  the  boys'  higher  schools  pupils  are  being  over- 
burdened with  work  during  school  hours,  still  more 
weighed  down  with  obligatory  home  work,  and  occa- 
sionally by  the  voluntary  work  which  the  pupils  do  for 
the  sake  of  praise.  In  many  cases  the  work  reaches  as 
high  as  eleven  hours  of  obligatory  school  duties — some- 
thing that  mature  men  can  not  stand  if  continuously 
kept  up.  The  pupils  do  not  secure  sufficient  sleep, 
nervousness  sets  in,  weak,  spectacled  eyes  become 
more  common,  and  all  forms  of  chronic  diseases  are 
said  to  be  more  frequent  among  pupils  of  the  sec- 
ondary schools  than  among  pupils  of  the  burgher 
schools,  where  less  is  exacted  of  the  pupils.* 

It  has  been  said  that  English  boys  are  two  years 
behind  the  Erench  at  eighteen,  but  at  twenty-five 
they  have  outstripped  them.  This  is  attributed  to 
the  overcrowding  of  the  French  boys  during  their 
adolescent  years,  and  the  comparative  freedom  from 
mental  overstimulation  of  the  English  boys.  The 
great  devotion  to  all  sorts  of  sports  requiring  bodily 
activity  in  the  open  air,  together  with  the  immunity 
from  mental  overexertion,  gives  to  the  English  boy, 

""  Zeitschrift  fiir  Sehulgesundheitspflege,  Nos.  11,  12,  1897. 


372    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

although  less  precocity  at  eighteen,  a  vigour  of  mind 
and  body  and  staying  qualities  which  insure  his 
being  a  winner  in  the  race. 

Better  than  to  increase  the  quantity  of  work,  an 
improvement  of  quality  is  most  desirable  in  American 
high  schools.  The  time  above  seven  or  eight  hours' 
close  mental  application  would  be  better  spent  in 
athletics  and  the  manual  arts.  An  increase  above 
this  amount  of  intellectual  application  in  adolescents 
is  suicidal  to  the  race.  Some  writers  who  have  made 
close  investigation  of  the  subject  claim  that  the 
mental  ability  of  German  youth  is  decreasing  and 
that  the  results  will  be  disastrous  to  future  genera- 
tions.* Let  us  take  due  warning.  It  would  seem 
as  though  the  fact  that  we  can  not  preserve  sound 
minds  in  unhealthy  bodies  is  completely  demonstrated 
by  physiology  and  psychology.  Its  reiteration  seems 
a  mere  platitude.  Yet  how  persistently  is  it  disre- 
garded ! 

10.  Sex  of  Teacher's. — The  great  predominance  of 
men  teachers  in  the  upper  grades  is  undoubtedly  one 
of  the  strong  features  of  the  German  instructional 
force.  The  men  make  it  a  life  work,  and  there  is 
none  of  the  "  temporariness "  usually  incident  to 
woman's  teaching.  Then,  undoubtedly,  during  ado- 
lescence the  firm  and  strong  hand  of  man  is  neces- 
sary to  guide  the  restless  youth  aright.  Women  are 
by  nature  too  emotional  and  vacillating  to  have  en- 
tire guidance  during  this  critical  j)eriod.  Best  of 
all,  many  of  the  men  are  fathers  of  families,  and  they 

*  Zeitschrift  fur  Schulgesundheitspflege,  Nos.  11, 12,  1897. 


CONCLUSIONS.  373 

have  that  necessary  knowledge  of  and  sympathy  with 
adolescence  to  care  judiciously  for  those  intrusted 
to  them.  A  teacher  who  is  a  parent  is  the  best  of 
counsellors.  No  young  men  or  women  are  compa- 
rable. To  me  this  seemed  one  of  the  most  admirable 
features  of  the  entire  system.  There  is  no  injudi- 
cious impulsiveness  usual  with  young  men,  nor  the 
weakness,  capriciousness,  and  sentimentalism  apt  to 
be  exhibited  by  young  women.  Older  men  exhibit 
calmness,  deliberation,  firmness,  yet  fatherly  consid- 
eration. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  lack  of  women  in  the 
primary  grades  and  girls'  schools  is  a  defect  in  the 
system.  Women  are  the  natural  teachers  of  chil- 
dren. What  little  lad  or  lassie  would  look  instinc- 
tively for  sympathy  and  love  from  a  bearded  and 
grizzled  old  man  ?  They  need  the  gentle  tones  and 
tenderness  that  only  a  sympathetic  woman  can  bestow 
upon  them.  Most  little  children  know  intimately 
among  grown  people  only  their  mother,  and  how  can 
it  be  expected  that  a  strange  man — the  proverbial 
schoolmaster  most  of  all — will  win  their  love  and 
confidence  ?  Without  their  confidence  how  can  they 
be  taught  the  highest  and  noblest  lessons  of  life  ? 
By  all  means  have  the  loving  hand  of  woman  to  guide 
the  tender  years  of  childhood. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  says  of  woman's  fitness  for  teach- 
ing, that  "  her  natural  endowments  of  versatility 
and  alertness  of  mind  fit  her  in  a  peculiar  sense  for 
the  sphere  of  teacher  of  children.  Their  arbitrari- 
ness and  caprice  can  be  best  watched  and  foiled  by 
her.     Their  feeble  strength  demands  intermittence 


374   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

and  periodicity,  and  their  training  must,  above  all, 
be  gentle."  *  When  children  become  older  and  feel 
the  restlessness  and  impatience  of  youth  upon  them, 
give  them  over,  at  least  in  part,  to  tliose  whose 
strength  tliey  will  look  upon  with  respect  and  admi- 
ration. Even  here  woman's  presence  has  a  desirable 
influence,  and  she  should  not  be  excluded  therefrom. 
In  my  opinion  were  there  at  least  a  small  percentage 
of  women  in  the  higher  schools  of  Germany  there 
would  be  a  distinct  gain.  It  would  manifest  itself 
in  causing  a  higher  and  more  wholesome  respect  for 
woman,  which  would  add  much  to  German  life.  The 
defect  is  the  most  deplorable  in  the  lower  schools. 
If  boys  have  not  learned  to  api^reciate  woman  at  her 
just  value  before  they  reach  the  higher  grades,  it  is 
a  difficult  matter  to  alter  their  opinions.  And  cer- 
tainly women  ought  to  be  employed  in  part  in  teach- 
ing girls. 

"  A  man  can  not  have  as  clear  a  comprehension 
of  the  nature  of  girls  as  a  woman,  a  representative  of 
the  same  sex,  undoubtedly  has.  He  is  more  apt  to 
make  mistakes  in  treating  them.  Furthermore,  in 
things  essentially  feminine  in  the  education  of  girls, 
such  as  fostering  the  sense  of  order,  punctuality, 
cleanliness,  graceful  carriage  of  the  body,  propriety, 
and  good  manners,  he  can  not  nearly  so  well  give 
advice  and  exercise  supervision  as  a  female  teacher, 
with  whom  these  things  are  matters  of  course.  .  .  . 
To  employ  young  unmarried  male  teachers  in  classes 
full  of  budding  girls  growing  into  maturity  is  objec- 

*  Report  of  Bureau  of  Education,  vol.  ii,  1891-'92,  p.  813. 


CONCLUSIONS.  3Y5 

tionable  from  a  pedagogical  and  even  a  moral  point 
of  view.  .  .  .  Older  teachers  are  often  lacking  in  that 
vivacity  in  instruction  which  girls  need  often  in  a 
greater  degree  than  boys  and  youths."  * 

11.  The  sejjciration  of  the  sexes  is  complete  in  all 
the  schools  of  Germany  excepting  some  of  the  pri- 
mary classes.  The  advisability  of  this  is  a  large 
question,  but  by  no  means  a  settled  one.  Many  ar- 
guments may  be  advanced  p7'0  and  con.  Germany 
feels  that  she  has  the  proper  solution,  while  in  Amer- 
ica, with  an  opposite  answer,  we  feel  for  the  most 
part  satisfied.  From  the  standpoint  of  discipline 
there  seems  some  advantage  in  separating  the  sexes. 
Certainly  discipline  in  German  schools  is  most  per- 
fect, and  the  separation  of  the  sexes  seems  to  have 
contributed  in  some  measure  to  this  end.  There  can 
be  no  valid  reasons  on  the  score  of  incapability  for 
excluding  girls  from  the  pursuance  of  the  same 
studies  as  boys  pursue.  They  have  demonstrated 
repeatedly  their  perfect  ability  to  master  as  severe 
mental  tasks  as  boys.  Candour  would  compel  a 
majority  of  teachers  in  schools  and  colleges  to  admit 
that  girls  are  among  the  best  students.  That  girls 
and  women  sometimes  break  down  while  pursuing 
severe  courses  of  study  is  no  argument  for  their  in- 
feriority or  incapability  either  mentally  or  physically. 
The  real  cause  is  stupidly  overlooked.  Custom  and 
Dame  Fashion  prescribe  that  girls  should  take  no 
exercise,  must  dress  unhygienically,  and  thus  impair 

*  Ilclene  Lan^e,  Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe, 
translated  by  L.  R.  Klemm,  p.  163. 


376   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

if  not  ruin  their  health.  Give  girls  the  same  chance 
for  their  physical  well-being,  and  they  will  not  evince 
any  more  signs  of  nervous  breakdown  than  their 
brothers. 

With  reference  to  the  moral  effect  npon  the 
school,  the  words  of  Jean  Paul  Richter  (Levana)  seem 
pregnant  with  truth  :  "  To  insure  modesty,  I  Avould 
advise  the  education  of  the  sexes  together ;  for  two 
boys  will  preserve  twelve  girls,  or  two  girls  twelve 
boys,  innocent  amid  winks.  Jokes,  and  improprieties, 
merely  by  that  instinctive  sense  which  is  the  fore- 
runner of  natural  modesty.  But  I  will  guarantee 
nothing  in  a  school  where  girls  are  alone  together, 
and  still  less  where  boys  are."  Dr.  Harris  writes 
of  his  large  experience  in  the  St.  Louis  schools  when 
coeducation  was  introduced :  "  Discipline  has  im- 
proved continually  with  the  adoption  of  mixed 
schools ;  .  .  .  the  rudeness  and  abandon  which  pre- 
vails among  boys  when  separate  at  once  gives  place 
to  self-restraint  in  the  presence  of  girls.  The  pru- 
rient sentimentality  engendered  by  educating  girls 
apart  from  boys  .  .  .  disappears  almost  entirely  in 
mixed  schools.  In  its  place  a  quiet  self-possession 
reigns ;  the  consequence  of  this  is  a  milder  form  of 
discipline.  Boys  and  girls,  originating  according  to 
Nature's  plan,  in  the  same  family  as  brothers  and 
sisters,  their  culture  should  be  together,  so  that  the 
social  instincts  may  be  saved  from  abnormal,  dis- 
eased action.  The  natural  dependence  of  each  in- 
dividual upon  all  the  rest  in  society  should  not  be 
hindered  by  isolating  one  sex  from  another  during 
the  most  formative  stages  of  growth.  .  .  .  Intellectual 


CONCLUSIONS.  377 

development  is  far  more  sound  and  healthy."  *  He 
further  writes,  "  I  had  noticed  that  the  atmosphere 
of  mixed  schools  was  desexualized,  where  that  of 
separate  schools  seemed  to  have  a  tendency  to  de- 
velop sexual  tension."  f  Dr.  E.  E.  White  writes  in 
the  same  symposium,  "  The  fact  that  there  is  sex  in 
the  mind  does  not  necessitate  sex  in  courses  of  study 
and  instruction."  Dr.  James  McAllister's  conviction 
is  that  "  boys  and  girls  can  be  taught  to  better  ad- 
vantage in  every  way  together."  We  might  multiply 
opinions  of  prominent  educators  and  physicians  who 
have  actually  witnessed  both  phases  of  the  experi- 
ment, and  Avho  are  unanimous  in  their  declarations 
of  the  feasibility  and  advisability  of  coeducation. 
Germany  would  perhaps  gain  nothing  from  the  stand- 
point of  intellectual  instruction  nor  from  mechanical 
discipline  by  adopting  coeducation.  But  there  is 
little  question  that  the  whole  social  position  of 
woman  would  begin  to  appear  in  a  new  light. 
Woman  would  be  seen  at  her  true  value,  and  greater 
respect  and  affection  for  woman  would  be  exhibited 
in  the  coming  generations.  We  have  no  reason  to 
abandon  our  growing  sentiment  of  appreciation  for 
coeducation  for  the  conservatism  of  Germany. 

12.  Higher  Education  of  Women. — We  in  this 
country  are  not  confronted  with  the  immediate 
question  whether  women  will  receive  higher  educa- 
tion. The  women  of  this  country  have  settled  it, 
for  a  time  at  least,  in  the  aflBrmative.     The  ultimate 


*  Report  of  Bureau  of  Education,  vol.  ii,  1891-'93,  jj.  807. 
+  Ibid.,  p.  806. 


378   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

question  of  whether  this  is  the  correct  solution  is 
still  a  debatable  one.  Shall  we  lend  our  aid  and 
encouragement,  or  shall  we  take  our  stand  with  the 
conservative  element  of  Germany?  The  question  is 
one  of  far-reaching  importance.  The  results  will  be 
judged  in  the  future  more  wisely  than  now.  Great 
tact  is  needed  in  dealing  with  it.  Its  solution  will 
affect  all  future  civilization.  Will  the  higher  educa- 
tion of  women  ultimately  advance  or  retard  the 
best  and  highest  interests  of  mankind  ?  AVliat  will 
be  the  effects  mentally,  morally,  physically,  upon 
woman  and  upon  the  race  ?  It  is  beyond  my  prov- 
ince to  enter  into  an  exhaustive  discussion  of  the 
subject.  The  question,  it  seems  to  me,  is  a  bio- 
logico-anthropological  one,  and  I  leave  the  discus- 
sion to  the  expounders  of  those  sciences. 

However,  I  may  set  forth  a  few  tentative  opinions 
that  appear  warrantable  in  the  light  of  present 
knowledge.  The  question  has  only  just  begun  to 
be  freed  from  mere  passing  sentiment.  When  logic 
has  bedn  applied,  the  past,  the  usual,  the  customary 
has  been  taken  as  the  major  premise,  with  the  result 
of  finding  the  new  to  be  untenable.  "  The  unusual 
appears  absurd."  The  subject  involves  several  as- 
pects, a  part  of  which  may  be  indicated  in  the  fol- 
lowing questions  :  (a)  What  is  the  result  to  woman's 
health  ?  (b)  Does  the  acquisition  of  a  higher  educa- 
tion subject  her  to  such  strain  that  woman  will  be 
less  capable  of  bearing  and  rearing  healthy  children  ? 
(c)  Does  it  produce  aversion  toward  marriage  and 
the  duties  of  motherhood?  (d)  Does  higher  educa- 
tion unfit  her  for  household  duties,  which  from  the 


CONCLUSIONS.  379 

nature  of  the  case  must  fall  to  her  ?  (e)  Does  higher 
education  tend  to  take  away  that  peculiar  charm  of 
femininity,  usually  termed  "  womanliness,"  which 
has  undoubtedly  been  potent  in  23roducing  the 
highest  and  noblest  types  of  sentiment?  (/)  Will 
women  become  more  masculine,  and  thus  those  finer 
shades  of  sympathy,  love,  compassion,  altruism — all 
of  which  are  conserved  in  the  race  through  woman's 
influence — become  displaced  by  the  grosser  charac- 
teristics which  belong  to  masculinity  ? 

The  last  two  questions  can  not  be  answered  in 
the  present ;  only  long  time  can  demonstrate  the 
answer.  However,  in  the  light  of  the  present  and 
from  our  knowledge  of  the  development  of  the  sen- 
timents, we  can  hardly  conceive  of  danger  from  this 
source.  In  discussing  the  effect  of  the  study  and 
practice  of  medicine  upon  woman,  which  was  looked 
upon  as  the  uUimatissimum  of  desexualiziug  occu- 
pations, we  may  quote  Miss  Lange's  opinion  concern- 
ing English  women  jihysicians.  According  to  her, 
experience  shows  that  the  womanliness  of  women 
physicians  is  in  no  danger.  Xot  only  has  woman 
preserved  unsullied  her  womanliness,  but,  "  more 
than  that,  the  womanliness  of  a  great  number  of 
patients  is  spared."  * 

13.  From  the  standpoint  of  health  Ilae\ie\e  there 
is  nothing  to  fear  from  the  higher  education  of 
women.  Considered  in  the  light  of  all  available 
statistics,  few  unfavourable  results  are  directly  trace- 
able to  this  cause.     Careful  investigations  have  been 

*  Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe,  p.  47. 
2G 


380   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

carried  out  by  inquiry  concerning  the  health  of 
Avomen  college  graduates.  The  most  exhaustive, 
perhaps,  was  that  instituted  by  a  committee  of  the 
Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae  concerning  the 
health  of  female  college  graduates.*  From  this  re- 
port the  statement  comes  that  "  the  facts  which  we 
have  presented  would  seem  to  warrant  the  assertion, 
as  the  legitimate  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  a 
careful  study  of  the  tables,  that  the  seeking  of  a 
college  education  on  the  part  of  a  woman  does  not 
in  itself  necessarily  entail  a  loss  of  health  or  serious 
impairment  of  the  vital  forces.  Indeed,  the  tables 
show  this  so  conclusively  that  there  is  little  need, 
were  it  within  our  province,  for  extended  discussion 
of  the  subject."  Further  :  "  It  is  sufficient  to  say 
that  the  female  graduates  of  our  colleges  and  uni- 
versities do  not  seem  to  show,  as  the  result  of  their 
college  studies  and  duties,  any  marked  difference 
in  general  health  from  the  average  health  likely  to 
be  reported  by  an  equal  number  of  women  engaged 
in  other  kinds  of  work,  or,  in  fact,  of  women  gener- 
ally without  regard  to  occupation  followed." 

From  the  same  source  it  is  shown  that  maternity 
is  equally  as  common,  and  infant  mortality  as  low, 
among  women  college  graduates  as  among  other 
women  of  the  same  social  strata.  If  the  number  of 
children  among  the  higher  classes  is  smaller  than 
in  the  working  classes,  it  is  not  necessarily  due  to 
sterility.  The  cause  may  be  attributable  to  per- 
verted notions  incident  to  the  social  demands  made 

*  See  report  under  this  title,  1885,  pp.  77,  78. 


CONCLUSIONS.  381 

upon  society  women ;  or  the  proper  regard  for  the 
economical  and  educational  possibilities  may  limit 
the  size  of  a  family.  Quality,  and  not  quantity,  is 
most  desirable. 

Dr.  Helen  P.  Kennedy  has  made  a  valuable  con- 
tribution to  the  medical  aspect  of  the  question  in 
her  study  of  "  The  Effects  of  High-School  Work  upon 
Girls  during  Adolescence."  *  She  maintains  that 
"  great  intellectual  demands  are  made  ujaon  young 
girls  at  the  time  Xature  is  developing  the  female 
organism.  The  whole  nature  of  the  girl  at  puberty 
is  undergoing  a  change  that  will  fit  her  for  mother- 
hood. ...  If  the  present  system  of  education  inter- 
feres with  this  process,  then  a  better  system  should  be 
devised.  If  the  system  as  it  is  inflicts  no  harm,  then 
we  must  look  to  other  causes  for  the  existing  ill 
health  of  American  girls.  Till  we  know  the  present 
state  of  health  of  schoolgirls  we  can  not  be  sure  that 
the  educational  system  is  at  fault,  and  therefore  can 
not  demand  its  improvement." 

From  her  thorough  study  of  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  cases  she  finds  an  improvement  in  forty- 
eight  per  cent  of  the  girls  during  their  high-school 
course,  twenty-six  per  cent  noticed  no  change,  and 
only  thirteen  per  cent  were  aware  of  any  increased 
unfavourable  symptoms.  To  her  mind  there  was 
"  clear  evidence  that  the  girls  were  graduated  from 
the  high  school  in  an  improved  physical  and  mental 
condition  rather  than  the  reverse."  K^either  were 
the  girls  "  stunted  in  physical  development,  being 

*  Pedagogical  Seminary,  vol.  iii,  1894-'95. 


382   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

normal  in  height  and  well  proportioned  in  other  re- 
spects." Alarmists  are  prone,  as  I  have  elsewhere 
indicated,  to  call  for  application  of  the  knife  at  the 
wrong  source.  Schools  are  charged  with  endanger- 
ing the  health  of  children  when  the  real  source  of 
evil  is  in  the  home.* 

14.  Effect  on  Home  Life. — It  is  only  those  who 
have  warped  opinions  concerning  true  housewifery 
who  look  askance  upon  intellectuality  in  a  wife  or 
mother.  They  have  advanced  little  beyond  the 
seventeenth-century  ideas  in  which  the  lower  classes 
of  women  were  regarded  as  drudges  and  the  higher 
as  ornaments  ;  intellectual  culture  was  considered  as 
either  useless  or  dangerous.  I  believe  that  affection 
for  and  devotion  toward  woman  has  been  greatly  in- 
creased by  her  conquests  and  victories  in  the  vari- 
ous departments  of  art  and  science  that  she  has 
entered.  Concerning  the  genesis  of  love,  Spencer 
says :  "  Egoistic  pleasures  of  all  kinds  are  doubled 
by  another's  sympathetic  participation,  and  the 
pleasures  of  another  are  added  to  the  egoistic  pleas- 

*  My  purpose  is  not  to  minimize  the  evils  due  to  unhygienic 
conditions  under  which  pupils  work  in  schools.  The  grossest 
ignorance  of  school-room  hygiene,  hygiene  of  work,  hygiene  of 
the  body  and  mind,  are  frequently  exhibited  by  teachers  who 
should  know  better.  Schoolhouses  are  also  frequently  almost 
criminally  constructed,  and  pupils  are  sometimes  shamefully 
overworked,  though  I  do  not  think  the  last  is  general  in  America. 
My  aim  is  to  show  the  need  of  proper  diagnosis  of  situations, 
Teachers  are  in  a  measure  responsible  for  not  causing  necessary 
knowledge  to  reach  down  more  among  the  masses.  Home  peda- 
gogy is  a  crying  necessity,  but  its  right  to  exist  must  be  first 
demonstrated  by  those  who  stand  in  high  places. 


CONCLUSIONS.  383 

ures."  *  How  can  "  sympathetic  participation  "  be 
engendered  save  through  knowledge  of  common  in- 
terests ?  Added  to  the  purely  physical  elements  of 
love  "  there  is  the  sentiment  of  admiration,  respect, 
or  reverence ;  in  itself  one  of  considerable  power, 
and  which  in  this  relation  becomes  in  a  high  degree 
active."  f 

"  I  would  protest  against  the  superstition  that 
the  housewife  and  the  scientifically  educated  woman 
are  incongruities  which  threaten  to  rend  German  life 
in  twain.  For  the  wife  who  does  not  understand  the 
great  interests  of  her  husband  is  not  able  to  foster 
and  increase  his  idealism,  which  disdains  material 
for  higher  gains  ;  she  will,  on  the  contrary,  endeavour 
to  drag  him  down  to  her  own  level."  J 

*  Principles  of  Psychology,  vol.  i,  p.  488. 

+  Ibid. 

X  Higher  Education  of  Women  in  Europe,  p.  157. 


AUTHORITIES   CONSULTED. 


W.  Rein.  Encyclopadisches  Handbuch  der  Padagogik, 
Langensalza.  (Probably  6  vols.,  3  vols,  ready.  Begun  1895. 
Alphabetically  arranged.)  "  R.  E."  will  indicate  this  work 
throughout  these  references. 

0.  Altenberg.     Abgangspriifung,  R.  E.,  i.  5-15. 

P.  Cauer.  Suum  Cuique,  Fiinf  Aufsatze  zur  Reform  d. 
hoheren  Schulwesens,  1889. 

A.  Gopfert.    Geographischer  Unterricht,  R.  E.,  ii,  572-583. 

A.  Bauraeister.  Die  Einrichtung  und  Verwaltung  des 
hoheren  Schulwesens,  Handbuch  der  Erziehungs-  und  Unter- 
richtslehre  fiir  hohere  Schulen,  4  vols.,  Munich,  1896. 

H.  Grosse.     Biblische  Bilder,  R.  E.,  i,  387-395. 

S.  Gunther,  R.  Menge,  and  others.  Biblische,  geographische, 
historische,  naturwissenschaftliche  Bilder  fiir  den  Kunstunter- 
richt,  R.  E.,  i,  383-412. 

R.  Gotz.  Gesetz  iiber  die  Realschulen  und  Seminiire  (Sach- 
sen),  1877. 

J.  Horn.     Das  Zukunftsgymnasium,  1803. 

J.  A.  Herzog.  Die  Schule  und  ihr  neuer  Aufbau  auf  natiir- 
licher  Grundlage,  1892. 

0.  Jager.  Das  huinanistische  Gymnasium  und  die  Petition 
um  durchgreifende  Schulreform,  1889. 

O.  Janke.     Arbeitszeit,  R.  E.,  i,  139. 

Juling.     Das  Gymnasium  init  zehnjahrigem  Kursus,  1893. 

K.  Knabe.     Gyranasiallehrer,  R.  E.,  iii,  68-74. 

O.  Kohl.     Griechischer  Unterricht,  R.  E.,  iii,  1-63. 

385 


386   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

n.  Kefcrstein.  Anschauungsunterricht;  Botanik  in  hohercn 
Schulen,  R.  E.,  i,  88-94,  489-498. 

A.  Lomberg.  Excursioncn  nnd  Schulwanderungen,  R.  E., 
ii,  117-126. 

R.  Menge.  Abgang  von  der  Schule,  R.  E.,  i,  15-16.  Ab- 
schlussprufung,  R.  E.,  i,  24.  Anschaulichkeit  des  Unterrichts, 
R.  E.,  i,  94-102. 

Meinhold.  Lehr-  und  Priifungsordnung  der  siichsisehen 
Gyninasien,  1893 ;  Priifungsordnung  flir  die  Kandidaten  des 
hoheren  Lehrarats  in  Preussen  vora  Februar  1887  nebst  der 
Bestimmung  iiber  die  praktische  Ausbildung  vom  Marz  1890, 
Berlin,  1891. 

R.  3Ienge.  Hospitieren  an  lioheren  Lehranstalten,  R.  E., 
iii,  733-741. 

F.  Nebauer.  Geschichtsunterricht  auf  holieren  Schulen, 
R.  E.,  ii,  765-801. 

F.  Paulsen.  Geschichte  des  gelehrten  Unterrichts,  2  vols., 
1897.  Das  Realgymnasium  und  die  humanistische  Bildung, 
1889.  Uber  die  gegenwilrtige  Lage  des  hoheren  Schulwesens, 
1892. 

F.  Palmie.     Die  socialen  Frage  und  die  Schule,  1890. 

W.  Preyer.  Stand  und  Ziele  der  Schulreform-Bewegung, 
1889. 

G.  Richter.     Gymnasialseminar,  R.  E.,  iii,  126-136. 

W.  Rein.  Encyclopadisches  Handbuch  der  Pildagogik 
(see  above).  Aus  dem  padagogischen  Universittits-Seminar 
zu  Jena.  Pamphlets  on  various  subjects,  1888-1894.  Am 
Ende  der  Schulreforni  (especially  good,  complete  bibliography), 
1892. 

H.  Schiller.  Handbiich  der  praktischen  Padagogik  fiir 
hohere  Lehranstalten,  1894.  Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  1890. 
Padagogische  Seminarien  fiir  das  liuhere  Lehramt — Geschichte 
und  Erfahrung,  1890. 

Sallwiirk.     Das  Staatsseminar  fiir  Padagogik,  1890. 

K.  A.  Schmid.  EncyclopJidie  des  gesammten  Erziehungs- 
und  L^nterrichtswesens,  bearbeitet  von  einer  Anzahl  Schul- 
manner  und  Gelehrten,  11  vols.,  1876-1896. 

Karl  Schmidt.     Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  1890, 


AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED.  387 

C.  Rethwisch.  Deutschlands  hohercs  Schulwesen  im  19. 
Jahrhundert,  Halle,  1893. 

W.  Schrader.  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre  flir  Gym- 
nasien  und  Realschulen,  1876. 

Uhlig.     Das  humanistische  Gymnasium,  1890. 

Schubert.  Augenglaser  und  Augenkrankheiten,  R.  E.,  i, 
199-213. 

W.  Siegert.     Beleuchtung  der  Schulziramer,  R,  E.,  i,  302. 

Steinbai-t.  Bereehtigungen,  R.  E.,  i,  327-333.  Besoldung 
an  hoheren  Knabenschulen,  R.  E.,  i,  362-367. 

J.  Tews.  Besoldung  der  VolksschuUehrer,  R.  E.,  i,  350- 
360.     Besoldung  der  Seminarlehrer,  R.  E.,  i,  360-362. 

0.  Willmann.  Griechische  Erziehung,  R.  E.,  ii,  916- 
920. 

Th.  Ziegler.  Geschichte  der  Padagogik,  Band  i,  1,  Baii- 
meisters  Handbuch  der  Erziehungs-  und  Unterrichtslehre  fiir 
hohere  Schulen,  1896. 

PERIODICAL  LITERATURE. 

Academische  Revue,  Salvisberg,  Munich. 

Allgemeine  deutsche  Lehrerzeitung.  A.  Berthelt  and  M. 
Kleinert,  Leipzig. 

Allgemeine  deutsche  padagogische  Rundschau,  Berlin. 

Bayerische  Lehrerzeitung,  Niirnberg. 

Braunschweigisches  Schulblatt,  Braunschweig. 

Blatter  fiir  das  Gymnasialschulwesen,  Miinchen. 

Centralblatt  fiir  die  Gesammte  Unterrichts-Verwaltung  in 
Preussen,  Berlin.  (01!icial  organ  of  the  Department  of  Educa- 
tion.) 

Deutsche  Schulzeitung,  Berlin.  (Central  organ  for  all  Ger- 
many.) 

Deutsche  Schulpraxis,  Leipzig. 

Hamburgische  Schulzeitung,  Hamburg. 

Hessische  Schulzeitung,  Hessen. 

Jahresberichte  liber  das  Hohere  Schulwesen,  Rethwisch, 
Halle. 

Lehrerzeitung  fiir  Ost-  und  Westprcussen,  Konigsberg. 


388  SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OP  GERMANY. 

Neue  Bahnen.     II.  Schcror,  J.  IMeyer,  Wiesbaden. 

Piidagogische  Studieii.     W.  Rein,  Dresden. 

Padagogisclie  Zeitung,  Berlin. 

Piidagogische  Blatter.     C.  Kehr,  Gotha. 

Piidagogium,  F.  Dittes. 

Piidagogische  Reform,  Hamburg. 

Lehrproben  und  Lehrgiinge  aus  der  Praxis  der  Gymnasien 
und  Realschulen.     W.  Fries,  R.  Menge,  Halle. 

Piidagogischer  JaLresbericht.     A.  Richter,  Leipzig. 

Siichsische  Schulzeitung,  Dresden. 

Statistisches  Jahi'buch  der  hoheren  Schulcn  Deutschlands. 
B.  G.  Teubner,  Leipzig. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  Gymnasialwesen.     H.  J.  Miiller,  Leipzig. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  den  deutschen  Unterricht.     Lyon,  Leipzig. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  Philosophic  und  Piidagogik.  0.  Fliigel,  W, 
Rein,  Langensalza. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  lateinlose  hohere  Schulen.  Weidner,  Leip- 
zig. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  das  Gymnasialwesen.     Miiller,  Berlin. 

ON  WOMEN'S  EDUCATION. 

Die  Lehrerin,  Gera. 

Zeitschrift  fur  weibliche  Bildung  in  Schule  und  Haus. 
Buchner,  Leipzig. 

From  the  last  the  following  articles  are  taken  : 

Armbrustei'.  Das  erste  und  zweite  Schuljahr  ira  Karls- 
ruher  Miidchengymnasium,  1895,  pp.  345-353. 

Barthels.  Die  Zukunft  der  hoheren  Madchenschulen  in 
Preussen,  1894,  pp.  419-427. 

Buchner.  Die  neuen  Regulative  fiir  die  preussische  Mad- 
chenschulen, 1894,  pp.  346-365. 

Bestiramung  iiber  das  Miidchenschulwesen  in  Preussen, 
1894.  pp.  317-325. 

Das  Miidchengymnasium  in  Bremen,  1896,  p.  595. 

Die  Wirkungcn  der  Bestimmung  vom  31.  Mai  1894  auf  die 
ancrkannten  hoheren  Madchenschulen  Preussens,  1896,  pp^.  409- 
419. 


AUTHORITIES  CONSULTED.  389 

Die  Petition  der  akademisch  gebildeten  Lehrer  preussiseher 
hoherer  Miidchenschulen  an  den  Herrn  Unterrichtsminister, 
1895,  pp.  1-6. 

Hubert.  Gymnasialkurse  fiir  Frauen  in  Leipzig,  1895, 
pp.  458-464. 

C.  Miehe.  Die  hoheren  Madchenschulen  in  Berlin,  1895, 
pp.  62-83. 

Die  Antwort  des  Kgl.  preussischen  Ministers,  auf  die  Denk- 
schrift  des  Oberbiirgermeisters  von  Koln,  1895,  pp.  225-236. 

Goldbeck.  Die  Berliner  Gymnasialkurse  f lir  Frauen,  1894, 
p.  209  ;  1895,  pp.  211-216. 

Wunder.  tJber  die  Altersversorgung  der  Lehrerinnen, 
1894,  p.  40. 

Vorwerk.  Wissenschaftliche  Fortbildungskurse  fiir  Leh- 
rerinnen, 1894,  p.  64.  Fortbildungskurse  fiir  Lehrerinnen  in 
Gottingen,  1896,  pp.  156, 157. 

Wunder.  Neun-  oder  zehnstufiger  Lehrgang  fiir  die  iiffent- 
lichen  hoheren  Madchenschulen  Preussens,  1894,  pp.  237-263. 

A.  Spi'engel.   Unsere  Lehrerinnen,  1895,  pp.  447-458, 470-478. 

OTHER  LITERATURE. 

Helene  Lange.  Frauenbildung,  1889.  (Same,  translated  by 
L.  R.  Klemm,  Higher  Education  of  Women.)  Entwicklung 
und  Stand  des  hoheren  Madchenschulwesens  in  Deutscliland, 
1893. 

Prom  each  one  of  the  secondary  schools  there  is  issued 
yearly  a  Bericht  or  report  of  the  year's  work  accomplished. 
There  are  nearly  a  thousand  issued  yearly.  From  these  I  have 
gained  a  large  amount  of  statistical  matter,  details  of  school 
programmes,  etc. 

LITERATURE  IN  ENGLISH. 

Dr.  L.  R.  Klemm.     European  Schools. 

M.  E.  Sadler.  The  Realschulen  in  Berlin  and  their  Bear- 
ing on  Questions  of  Secondary  and  Commercial  Education, 
Spec.  Rep.,  Ed.  Dept..  Great  Britain,  1896-'97.  The  Oberreal- 
schulen  of  Prussia,  ibid. 


390    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 

Catherine  I.  Dodd.     The  School  Journey  in  Germany,  ibid, 

F.  H,  Dale.  The  Teaching  of  the  Mother  Tongue  in  Ger- 
many, ibid.  The  Admission  of  Women  to  Universities  in  all 
Countries  of  the  World. 

Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  of  the  United 
States.  Contains  nearly  every  year  a  rich  fund  of  information 
concerning  education  in  various  countries.  For  complete  bib- 
liography of  articles  on  German  education,  see  vol.  i,  1894-'95, 
p.  321.  Special  articles  on  secondai-y  education  consulted  for 
this  work : 

Bird's-eye  View  of  the  Schools  in  Central  Europe,  i,  1888-89. 

The  Higher  Schools  of  Prussia  and  the  School  Conference 
of  1890,  Charles  H.  Thurber,  1,  1888-89. 

School  Gardens  in  Germany  and  Austria,  1888-'89,  p.  308. 

Attendance  in  Secondary  Schools  for  Boys  in  Germany, 
1893-'94,  p.  298. 

Is  German  Pedagogy  in  a  State  of  Decomposition  1  1894- 
'95,  p.  329. 

Comparison  of  the  Schools  of  Germany,  France,  and  the 
United  States,  with  diagrams,  1888-'89,  p.  32. 

The  Training  of  Secondary  Teachers  in  Germany,  with  Sug- 
gestions for  England,  1893-'9'4. 

Coeducation  of  the  Sexes,  with  bibliography,  ii,  1891-'92. 

Dr.  J.  E.  Russell  has  a  series  of  articles  in  the  School  Review 
on  the  teaching  of  various  subjects  in  the  secondary  schools  of 
Germany :  German,  1894,  p.  199  ;  Mathematics,  1894,  pp.  479, 
549 ;  Greek  and  Latin,  1894,  pp.  585.  664 ;  History  and  Geog- 
raphy, 1897,  pp.  257,  539  ;  Natural  Science,  1897,  pp.  18,  65. 

[Since  this  volume  went  to  the  printer.  Dr.  Russell's  articles 
have  been  gathered  into  book  form  and  constitute  the  main 
part  of  his  work  on  German  Higher  Schools.  Longmans,  Green 
&Co.] 

E.  J.  Goodwin.  Some  Characteristics  of  Prussian  Schools, 
Educational  Review,  1896,  p.  453. 

Dr.  W.  H.  Burnham.  The  Higher  Pedagogical  Seminaries 
in  Germany,  Pedagogical  Seminary,  1891,  p.  390. 


INDEX. 


Abgangszeugniss,  57. 

Abiturienten,  certificate,  S3 ;  ex- 
amination inaugurated,  134,  ex- 
plained, 269-276. 

Abschlusspri'ifung,  157. 

Abstract  studies,  often  too  early 
introduced,  359. 

Jisthetic  culture,  167  ;  in  mathe- 
matics, 232. 

Ages,  of  secondary-school  gradu- 
ates, 13 ;  of  college  graduates, 
14 ;  of  students  in  Leipsic  Gym- 
nasitxm,  15;  table  of,  16. 

Algebra,  course  in,  229. 

Allgemeine  Frauen  Verein,  304. 

Anschauungs  njaterial,  83,  84  ;  in 
classics,  191 ;  in  natural  science, 
253. 

Appliances,  sclioolroom,  42,  45, 
240,  253. 

Appointment,  of  teachers,  22-28  ; 
of  provincial  school  boards,  21 ; 
of  provincial  school  inspectors, 
22;  of  minister  of  education, 
23. 

Askanisches  Gymnasium,  mathe- 
matical examination,  234. 

Atkinson,  Dr.  F.  W.,  on  univer- 
sity schools  of  education,  364. 

Attendance,  compulsory,  15. 


Baden,  general  organization,  24; 
tuition  in,  27  ;  number  of  pupils 
in  each  grade  (tables),  38,  39 ; 
teachers'  titles,  114,  116;  teach- 
ers' salaries,  120;  changes  made 
by  the  Conference  of  1890,  160; 
programme  in  gymnasium,  171 ; 
real  -  gymnasia,  175;  real - 
schools,  177 ;  mixed  school  in 
Baden-Baden,  179  ;  progymna- 
sia,  180;  course  in  history,  244. 

Bavaria,  general  organization,  23 ; 
professional  training,  80  ;  teach- 
ers' titles,  117 ;  teachers'  sala- 
ries, 120  ;  changes  made  by  Con- 
ference of  1890, 160  ;  programme 
in  gymnasia,  172;  real-gymna- 
sia, 174;  real-schools,  176. 

Beiriithe,  24,  28. 

Berechtigung,  30-37, 137. 

Berlin,  20;  climatic  conditions  in, 
50 ;  teachers'  salaries,  124 ;  Con- 
ference of  1890,  130-158. 

Boards,  provincial  school,  21. 

Bosse,  Dr.,  present  Minister  of 
Education,  20. 

Botany,  teachers'  examination  in, 
66  ;  course  in,  250-258. 

Bremen,  tuition  in,  27  ;  girls'  gym- 
nasium, 305. 

391 


392    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


Breslau,  girls'  gymnasium,  305. 
Buildings,   43;    lighting    of,    44; 

government  inspection  of,  51. 
Bureaucracy  (Schulbureaukratie), 

22,  27,  138,  351. 
Burgher  schools,  6,  34. 
Burnham,  Dr.  W.  H.,  146. 

Calculu.s,  02. 

Certification,  of  teachers  in  Sax- 
ony, 50 ;  State,  in  America, 
365. 

Chemistry,  teachers'  examination 
in,  60 ;  course  in,  252. 

Church,  the,  in  establishment  of 
schools,  131. 

Cities,  growth  of,  130. 

City  schools,  rise  of,  130. 

Civic  instruction,  166,  167,  191, 
193,  232,  243,  246-250  ;  Emperor 
on,  153,  ff. ;  civic  ideals,  245,  if. 

Civil  service,  35. 

Class  distinctions,  117,  118. 

Class  exercises,  critique  of,  102- 
104. 

Classes  of  schools  recognised  since 
1882, 140. 

Classical  schools  compared  with 
non- classical,  9;  comparative 
table,  163. 

Classics,  core  of  instruction,  132, 
189 ;  end  in  teaching,  190 ;  fu- 
ture of  instruction  in,  192-196. 

Clergymen,  teachers  of  religion, 
184. 

Climate  and  education,  48. 

Collegiate  Alunmos,  Association 
of,  380. 

Comenius  Stiftung,  100. 

Committee,  local  school,  21 ;  of 
Seven  and  of  Ten,  361,  370. 

Compulsory  education,  15,  50. 


Concentration,  83,  84 ;  lack  of,  in 
American  schools,  357 ;  Prof. 
Ilaiius  on,  361 ;  President  Hull 
on,  862. 

Conference  of  1890, 130-158;  call 
for,  147;  Emperors  attitude  to- 
ward, 147,  148,  152-155;  ques- 
tions discussed,  148  flf. ;  changes 
effected  by,  156-158,  160-164; 
recommendations  of,  158-161. 

Conservatism,  34,  249,  313,  310, 
377. 

Continuity,  German  idea  of,  360. 

Correlation,  German  and  history 
centre  of,  157 ;  of  history,  lit- 
erature, and  geography,  190, 
237 ;  mathematics  and  art,  237. 

Courses  of  study,  historical  basis 
of,  129;  reforms  in,  129-164;  in 
the  earliest  secondary  schools, 
131 ;  previous  to  1882, 161 ;  from 
1812  to  1891,  162;  outlined  by 
ministry,  165;  similar  through- 
out Germany,  166  ;  present,  165- 
276 ;  tabular  programmes  for 
gymnasia,  168 ;  for  real-gym- 
nasia, 168  ;  for  real  -  schools, 
169;  courses  in  religion,  182- 
185;  in  classics,  185-197;  in 
modern  languages,  197-215;  in 
mathematics,  215-235 ;  in  his- 
tory and  geography,  235-250; 
in  natural  sciences,  250-200 ;  in 
German,  200-269  ;  making  of  an 
important  problem,  357. 

Crystallography,  252. 

Curricula,  changes  throughout 
Europe,  144-147 ;  correlated, 
359.    See  also  Courses  of  Study. 

Dameninvasion  in  universities, 
314. 


INDEX. 


393 


December  Conference.  See  Con- 
ference. 

Departmental  teachers,  58-78,  3G8, 
369. 

Development,  stages  of,  358. 

Differentiation  of  schools,  4. 

Diplomas,  university,  not  legal 
certiticates,  56 ;  value  of  sec- 
ondary school,  30 ;  prerequisites 
for  certain  occupations,  31,  32; 
chussitied  list  of  values,  33-36; 
recognition  of,  in  America,  367. 

Directors,  appointment  of,  40; 
characteristics  of,  40. 

Discipline,  41, 42,  53 ;  mental,  359. 

Diseases,  school,  371. 

District  inspectors,  22. 

Doctorate  degrees,  value  as 
licenses,  70. 

Dom  and  Kloster  Scliulen,  130. 

Dresden,  salaries  in,  27. 

Drobisch,  Prof.  Martin,  95. 

Education,  Ministerium  of,  20  ff. ; 
social  value  of,  29,  30  ;  and  mili- 
tary duty,  31,  36;  of  women, 
297-350  ;  general  discussion  of, 
341-350,  377-383  ;  schools  of,  in 
America,  364. 

Einheitsschulen,  142, 194. 

Elementiirschulen,  7. 

Emancipation  der  Frauen,  331. 

Emperor,  on  school  reform,  152  ff. ; 
on  education  of  girls,  348. 

Empress  on  education  of  girls, 
348. 

English,  qualifications  for  teach- 
ing, 62;  course  in  reading,  199; 
in  Leipsic  real-gymnasium,  199 ; 
general  discussion,  206-211  ; 
suggestive  list  in,  212;  method 
of  teaching  suggested,  216-218. 


Examinations,  of  teachers,  50  ff. ; 
.scope  of,  in  various  subjects,  01- 
68 ;  trial  lesson  a  part  of,  60 ; 
groups  of  subjects  in,  59 ;  final, 
in  secondary  schools,  269-276. 

Eyesight,  defective,  43,  44,  154, 
155,  371. 

Fatigue  of  students,  371. 

Final  examinations,  purpose  of, 
269  ;  how  conducted,  271 ;  stud- 
ies included  in,  271. 

Francke,  A.  H.,  82. 

French,  course  in,  197-199 ;  dis- 
cussion of,  200  tf. 

Frick,  Dr.,  148. 

Fries,  Frof.  William,  94. 

Geography,  course  in,  235-250; 
correlation,  190. 

Geometry,  required  of  teachers, 
62;  course  in,  see  Mathemat- 
ics. 

German,  qualifications  for  teach- 
ing, 05  ;  in  American  schools, 
73  ;  course  in,  200-269 ;  maxi- 
mum results  in  minimum  time, 
264-269  ;  comparative  statistics 
on  teaching,  205. 

Giessen,  pedagogical  seminary,  83, 
102. 

Girls'  schools,  5  ;  classification  of, 
277 ;  separate  from  boys',  278 ; 
general  regulations,  280  If. ; 
courses  of  study  in,  285  ff. ; 
girls'  gymnasia,  304 ;  in  Bre- 
men, Breslau,  Karlsruhe,  305  ; 
Leipsic,  306  ff. ;  course  in,  308  ff. 

Go.ssler,  Minister  von,  156. 

Gottingen,  pedagogy  at,  91,  105; 
Fortbildungs  course  for  women, 
324  S. 


394    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


Greek,  qualifications  tor  teaching, 
63  ;  examination  in,  64  ;  course 
in,  188. 

Griffing  and  Franz,  eye  tests  of,  44. 

Gymnasia,  characteristics  of,  1,  (J ; 
salaries  in  boys',  20  ;  progratiime 
in  Prussia,  171;  in  Baden,  171  ;in 
Saxony,  172;  in  Bavaria,  172  ;  in 
Wijrteniberg,  173  ;  in  Frankfort, 
181 ;  girls',  304. 

Gymnastics,  52. 

Hall,  President  G.  S.,  on  concen- 
tration, 362. 

Halle,  first  real-school,  133. 

Hamburg,  tuition  in  secondary 
schools,  27  ;  salaries,  124. 

Hanus,  Prof.  P.  11.,  on  concentra- 
tion, 361. 

Harris,  Dr.  W.  T.,  on  education  of 
girls,  346. 

Hartmann,  Prof.  Martin,  97. 

Hausknecht,  Dr.  E.,  on  education 
of  girls,  345,  347. 

Hebrew,  course  in,  189. 

Hecker,  J.  J.,  133. 

Held  el  berg,pedagogical  seminary , 
102. 

Hesse,tuition  in  secondary  schools, 
27  ;  distribution  of  schools,  38, 
39. 

High  school  the  people's  college, 
11. 

History,  teachers'  examination,  67 ; 
civic  ideals  in,  243  ;  Lehrziel  in 
Bavaria,  243  :  in  Baden,  244 ; 
course  outlined,  235-250  ;  cor- 
relation in,  157,  237  ff. ;  Com- 
mittee of  seven  on,  361. 

Hofl'man,  Prof.  Franz,  96. 

Humanism,  1. 

Humboldt  Gymnasium,  235. 


Hunger  candidates,  141, 154. 
Hygienic  conditions,  supervised, 
24  ;  in  schools,  382. 

Inflexibility  of  method,  42. 

Inspectors,  district  ( Kreisschulin- 
spektoren),  22. 

Instruction,  oral,  41. 

Instructors,  number  in  a  school, 
40 ;  maturity  of,  40. 

Intellectual  flabbiness  of  high- 
school  graduates,  361. 

Interest,  factors  determining,  358 ; 
creating  permanent,  358  ;  killed 
by  overcrowding,  360. 

James,  Prof.  William,  on  nascent 

periods,  358. 
Jena,  pedagogical  seminary,  92. 
Journey,  school,  24  tf. 
Juling,  Director,  13. 

Karlsruhe,  girls'  gymnasium,  305. 

Karzer  (school  prison),  42. 

Kennedy,  Dr.  Helen,  education 
and  girls'  health,  381. 

King,  relation  of,  to  school  sys- 
tems, 23. 

Klemm,  Dr.  L.  E.,  44,  375. 

Knowledge,  meaning  of  proper 
grasp  of,  359. 

Kreisschulinspektoren,  22. 

Kuratorium,  25. 

Laboratories,   equipment   of,  253, 

258. 
Lange,  Helene,  on  education  ot 

Avomen,  110,  300,  305,  333,  334, 

341,  343,  349,  379;  Prof.  Karl, 

109. 
Latin,  teachers'   examination   in, 

63;  schools  in  England,  130  ;  iu 


INDEX. 


395 


Gernumy,13-t;  composition,  15S; 
course  in,  185-188;  end  iu  view 
in,  190 ;  correlation,  192  If.  Also 
see  Classics. 

Lelimann,  Prof.  Ernst,  98. 

Lehrplan,  Prussian,  1S7,  190,  240, 
2(58. 

Lehrziel,  in  classics,  190  ;  in  his- 
tory, 243,  244.  See  Civic  In- 
struction. 

Leipsic,  Royal  Gynniasium,  15 ; 
meteorological  conditions,  48 ; 
pedagogical  seminaries,  9(j,  97, 
106  ;  higher  girls'  school,  285 ; 
girls'  gymnasium,  306. 

Liberalism,  growth  of,  3. 

London  University,  reform  in,  145. 

Maps  and  charts,  good,  45. 

Mathematics,  qualitications  for 
teaching,  61,  69  ;  course  in,  215- 
235 ;  general  discussion  of  course, 
221 ;  improved  methods,  cause  of, 
^2;  instruction  better  in  Ger- 
many than  in  America,  223 ; 
great  facility  and  accuracy  at- 
tained, 226,  227  ;  unnecessary 
parts  omitted,  fundamentals  of- 
ten applied,  224 ;  nmch  oral 
work  in,  225 ;  general  arrange- 
ment of  course,  228  ;  in  Ameri- 
can schools  poorly  taught,  230; 
spiral  course,  230 ;  correlation, 
230  ;  specimen  final  paper,  234. 

McAllister,  Dr.  James,  on  educa- 
tion of  girls,  377. 

Meteorological  conditions  in  the 
United  States  (table),  49. 

Method,  see  Various  Studies. 

Military  duty,  compulsory,  28-31 ; 
exemption  from,  31  ;  service,  36. 

Minister  of  Education,  23,  24. 


Ministerium,  20,  23,  24. 

Mittelschulen,  8. 

Modern  languages,  requirements 
for  teaching,  73  ;  courses  in,  197- 
215  ;  general  discussion,  200  if. ; 
natural  method  being  adopted, 
204,  206 ;  oral  work,  207  ;  cor- 
relation with  geography,  209  ; 
excellent  results  in,  211 ;  in  real- 
schools  and  real-gymiuisia,  203- 
210. 

Mother  tongue,  time  given  to,  in 
Germany  and  iu  Amei-ica,  264  ff. 

Museums,  school,  256.  See  also 
Anschauung. 

Na-sceut  jJeriods,  Prof  James  on, 

359. 
National  system  in  Germany,  no, 

19. 
Normal  schools,  78,  81,  366. 

Oberlehrer,  59,  114. 

Oberrealschule  explained,  6;  pro- 
grammes in,  177,  179 ;  modem 
languages  iu,  204.  ^ 

Oberschulriithe,  24. 

Oral  instruction,  41. 

Ordentliche  Lehrer,  115. 

Organization,  outline  of,  1  ff. ;  re- 
lation of  schools  to  state  and 
city,  19  ff. ;  general  features  of 
inner,  40  ff. 

Overwork,  47,  53.  See  Ucber- 
bilrdung. 

Paternalism  of  state,  28. 

Paulsen,  Prof.  F.,  129, 131, 141 ;  on 
modern  languages  and  future  of 
classical  studies,  195,  106. 

Pedagogy,  requii'ed  of  all  teach- 
ers, 75,  70 ;  in  the  universities, 


396    SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


104-112;  courses  in,  105;  ex- 
perimental, 109 ;  in  American 
universities,  364. 

People's  schools,  2,  27,  100,  29S- 
300. 

Petersilie,  Dr.  A.,  22. 

Philology  in  language  examina- 
tions, 62,  64  fl". 

Philosophy  required  of  all  teach- 
ers, 59,  61,  74,  76. 

Physics,  qualitications  for  teach- 
ing, 66 ;  course  in,  252  fif. 

Planimetry,  228. 

Play,  too  little,  in  Germany,  51. 

Playgrounds,  inadequate,  51. 

Politeness,  marked  in  pupils,  40. 

Practice  classes,  99 ;  teaching, 
points  to  observe,  102. 

Precocity  of  Frencli  boys,  372. 

Preparation, of  teachers,  thorough, 
SO,  40,  42,  55-105,  362,  364,  368 ; 
suggestions  for,  in  America,  365. 

Preparatory  schools,  17. 

Preyer,  Prof.  William,  109, 155. 

Privileges  (Berechtigungen),  30  AT. 

Probejahr,  78,  86,  89. 

Professional  training,  defective  in 
America,  363 ;  should  follow 
academic  study,  364. 

Progymnasia,  Prussian  and  Ba- 
den, 180. 

Pronunciation  of  English  poor, 
211. 

Prorector,  114. 

Provincial  boards,  21. 

I'riifungskommission,  273. 

Prussia,  general  organization,  22 ; 
tuition,  27  ;  value  of  diplomas, 
33 ;  number  in  grades,  38,  39 ; 
number  of  recitations  per 
teacher,  53 ;  training  of  teach- 
ers, 81-85 ;  type  of  all  Germany, 


81;  seminary  year,  86;  trial 
year,  89;  teachers'  titles,  119; 
salaries,  120;  few  changes  of 
teachers,  119;  birth  of  real- 
gynniasium,  136 ;  real-schools 
without  Latin,  140;  develop- 
ment of  curricula  (table),  162; 
programmes  in  gymnasia,  171 ; 
real-gymnasia,  173 ;  real  -schools, 
175  ;  higher  real-schools,  177  ;  a 
mixed  school,  178 ;  real-pro- 
gynmasia,  178 ;  progymnasia, 
180. 

Psychology  in  education,  59,  64, 
74,  76,  365. 

Punishments,  41,  42. 

Pupils,  number  of.  in  classes,  40, 
158;  distribution  of,  8,  9,  38, 
39;  ages  of,  13-16;  continuous 
course  of,  12,  47,  118. 

Pyramidal  system,  1. 

Qualifications  of  teachers,  68-75. 

See  also  Various  Studies. 
Quadrivium,  130. 

Ratschulen,  130. 

Eeading,  course  in,  212-215. 

Keal-gymnasia,  origin,  136 ;  pro- 
grammes in,  Prussia,  173;  Ba- 
varia, Saxony,  174 ;  Baden, 175 ; 
Frankfort,  181. 

Eeal-progymnasia,  in  Prussia,  178. 

Beal-schools  defined,  2 ;  main- 
tained at  local  expense,  23 ; 
origin,  133  ;  without  Latin,  first, 
140 ;  programmes  in  Prussia, 
175 ;  Bavaria,  Sa.xony,  176 ;  Ba- 
den, 177. 

Reform,  Association  for  School, 
143 ;  propositions  for,  142  fiF. ; 
accomplished  by  Conference  of 


INDEX. 


397 


1890, 150  ff. ;  in  other  countries, 
145,  1-16. 

Keichsschulkoramission,  19. 

Keife  Zeu<rni.ss,  57,  353. 

Eein,  Prof.  W.  H.,  93 ;  on  Ameri- 
can progress,  110. 

Keligion,  in  teachers'  examina- 
tion, 65  ;  course  in  boys'  school, 
182-185  ;  harmony  among  sects, 
184. 

Ecport,  Committees  of  Seven  and 
Ten,  3(51. 

Eethwisch,  Prof.  C,  26,  38,  142. 

Bichter,  Prof.  Kichard,  97 ;  Jean 
Paul,  376. 

Russell,  Prof.  J.  E.,  257. 

Salaries,  of  men,  25,  119-125  (ta- 
bles);  of  women.  330-336  (ta- 
bles) ;  regulated  by  state,  369. 

Saxony,  general  organization,  23 ; 
teachers'  hours,  53;  teachers' 
examination  and  certification 
(typical  for  Germany),  56;  train- 
ing of  teachers,  79 ;  teachers' 
titles,  114;  salaries,  120;  pro- 
grammes in  gymnasia,  172;  real- 
gymnasia,  174 ;  real-schools,  176. 

Schiller,  Prof.  H.,  83,  148. 

Schools,  distribution  of,  and  pu- 
pils, 8 ;  boards,  21,  28 ;  bureau- 
cratic government  of,  22 ;  pris- 
ons, 42 ;  length  of  sessions,  46 ; 
age,  50. 

Schuldeputation,  21. 

Schiilerballast,  139. 

Schulinspektoren,  21. 

SchulkoUegium,  21,  24,  28,  88. 

Schulze,  Johannes,  135. 

Science,  natural,  250  ff. 

Seminaries,  establishment  of,  78; 
with    elementary    schools,   82 ; 


special  theses  in,  83 ;  university, 
91  ff. ;  (Jena,  92 ;  Leipsic,  95 ; 
Strasburg,  101 ;  Heidelberg, 
102; ;  gymnasial,  85-91 ;  in  Sax- 
ony, 79  ;  Bavaria,  80  ;  Wurtem- 
berg,  81 ;  workings  of,  81-112. 

Semler,  Christopher,  133. 

Seven  disciplines,  the,  130,  131. 

Sex  of  teachers,  40,  372. 

Sexes,  separation  of,  375. 

Special  -  department  teachers,  59 
il.,  370. 

Specialization  should  be  a  late 
acquisition,  357. 

Spencer,  II.,  on  test  of  value  of 
study,  358 ;  on  origin  of  love, 
382. 

Spiral  plan  of  studies,  244,  358. 

States  independent  of  each  other, 
19. 

Statuary,  192. 

Stereometry,  229,  312. 

Stimuli  to  higher  education,  29. 

Strasburg  Seminary,  101. 

Strumpell,  Prof.  L.,  95, 105. 

Studienrath,  114. 

Studies,  secondary,  earlier  intro- 
duction of,  desirable  in  America, 
361. 

Subjects,  groups  of,  for  teachers, 
59 ;  finished,  360. 

Subordination  a  national  trait,  41. 

Support  of  schools,  25,  20. 

Teachers,  state  officials,  24;  ap- 
pointments of,  28;  long-tenure 
of,  40,  118 ;  daily  hours  of,  53 ; 
freedom  from  discipline,  54 ;  li- 
braries for,  54 ;  salaries  (see  Sal- 
aries) ;  examination  and  certifi- 
cation, 55 ;  university  training, 
I      55  ;  aim  of  examination  of,  58 ; 


398   SECONDARY  SCHOOL  SYSTEM  OF  GERMANY. 


professional  equipment,  58,  YG ; 
pliilosophy  required  of  all,  59; 
theses  and  trial  lesson  in  exami- 
nation, 60,  367;  scope  of  exami- 
nation in  various  subjects,  GI- 
GS; qualifications  of,  compared 
■with  American  teachers,  68  If. ; 
titles,  112-118 ;  specialized  work, 
59,  369  ;  short-tenure,  in  Amer- 
ica, 118;  superior  training  in 
Germany,  75,  362 ;  social  status 
of,  160;  general  plan  of  ti-ain- 
ing,  76  ft'.,  363 ;  suggestions  for 
training  in  America,  365. 

Teaching,  life  work,  368. 

Technical  schools,  7. 

Text-books,  unimportant  role,  41. 

Theses,  in  pedagogical  semina- 
ries, 83 ;  in  examinations,  60  f., 
366. 

Thurber,  Prof.  Charles,  129,  148. 

Training  of  teachers,  55, 76  If.,  359, 

Trigonometry,  61. 

Trivium,  130. 

Tuition,  2G,  27,  298. 

Ueberbiirdung,  141,  146,  203. 

Unity,  mental,  359. 

University,  diplomas  not  teachers' 
certificates,  5fi;  conditions  of 
admission  to,  33, 137  ;  leaders  in 
pedagogical  doctrine,  363:  train- 
ing schools  in  America,  365. 

Values,  standard  of,  in  America 
and  Germany,  126. 


Volkelt,  Prof.  J.,  96. 
Volksschulen,  1,  26. 
Von  Gossler,  Minister,  147. 
Vorschulen,  1,  17  ft".;  course  in, 

182,  215,  235,  260. 
Vorstand,  114. 

Wliite,  Dr.  E.  E.,  on  education  of 
girls,  377. 

Willmann,  Prof.,  101. 

Windschied,  Dr.  Kathie,  306. 

Women,  higher  education  of,  276- 
350;  teachers,  number  of,  300; 
state  support  of  education  of, 
300 ;  distribution  of  schools  and 
teachers,  802 ;  in  universities, 
313 ;  Fortbildungsschulen  for, 
823 ;  salaries  of,  330 ;  emanci- 
pation of,  331 ;  education  of,  in 
principal  countries  (tables),  337- 
340 ;  higher  education  of,  con- 
sidered, 341  ft'.,  377  ;  desirability 
of,  in  girls'  schools,  373  ft'. ;  effect 
of  education  on  health  and  on 
home  life  of,  379-383. 

Wurtemberg,  teachers'  liours,  53; 
professional  training,  80 ;  titles, 
117,  118;  salaries,  120;  changes 
made  by  Conference  of  1890, 
160;  programme  in  gymnasia, 
173. 

Ziegler,Dr.  T.,  101. 
Ziller,  Prof.  T.,  95. 
Zoology,  teachers'  examination  in, 
67  ;  course  in,  250  ft'. 


THE    END. 


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